Contemporary arts and crafts. Folk decorative art: Index php showtopic folk arts and crafts

Folk decorative art in our country is an organic part of folk culture. Poetic images, emotions inherent in him are dear and understandable to all people. It instills a sense of beauty, helps to form a harmoniously developed personality. Based on long-standing artistic traditions, decorative arts have a positive effect on the education of the person of the future. The works, which are created by masters from the people, are a reflection of love for their native land, the ability to see and understand the beauty of the surrounding world.

The main types of decorative arts

For long centuries, domestic production in peasant families, and starting from the 18th-19th centuries and handicrafts, supplied cities and villages with various utensils made of clay, wood and metal, printed fabrics, ceramic and wooden toys, carpets, etc. and cheerfulness on wood, Dymkovo figurines and whistles made of clay, Lukuta painted lacquer boxes. Each of these items is a work of folk decorative art. Wooden gold - Khokhloma painting - is of great interest in Russia and abroad.

There were original crafts in the Far East, the Russian North, Siberia, and the Caucasus. The processing of metal in the Dagestan Kubachi, ceramic painting in Balkhar, and silver notching in Untsukul became famous. Folk decorative arts, the types of which are very diverse, are represented in different parts of our vast country.

Vologda lace - folk decorative art

Vologda lace gained popularity in European capitals at the end of the 18th century. And in our time, many foreigners mistakenly believe that lace is woven in Russia only in Vologda. In fact, Yelets, Kirishi, Vyatka also have reason to be proud of their products. Almost all of them have their own unique characteristics. So, Mikhailovsky colored laces are very interesting. In our country, they have gained no less popularity than the Vologda ones. Nevertheless, just like hundreds of years ago, it is to Vologda that they go for a snow-white miracle.

Openwork carving

Openwork carving adorns small-sized bone items: boxes, caskets, pendants, brooches. A work of folk decorative art - bone lace - this is how openwork carving is poetically called.

The most widespread are three types of ornamentation in bone cutting:

• Geometric - an interweaving of straight and curved lines.
• Vegetable.
• Rocaille - stylization of the sea shell shape.

The technique of openwork carving is used to create compositions based on ornament and subject matter. The raw material is ordinary cow bone.

Fine work on openwork carving requires special tools: needle files, graders, rivets, jigsaws.

Beading

Beading can be proud of a centuries-old history, just like the beads themselves. The inhabitants of Ancient Egypt were the first to master the complex skill of weaving necklaces based on small colored glass balls, and also decorated clothes with them. However, bead production really flourished in the 10th century. For many years, the inhabitants of Venice have carefully kept the secrets of their craftsmanship. Purses and handbags, shoes, clothes and other fine things were decorated with luxurious beads.

When beads appeared in America, they replaced the traditional materials used by the indigenous people. Here they were trimmed with cradles, baskets, earrings, snuff boxes.

The peoples of the Far North decorated fur boots, fur coats, reindeer harness, and headdresses with beaded embroidery.

Batik

Batik - DIY fabric painting using fixing compounds. The technique is based on the observation that rubber glue and paraffin, when applied to fabric, do not allow paint to pass through themselves.

There are several varieties of batik - knotted, hot, shibori, cold.

The name "batik" is Indonesian, which means "paint", "hatch", "cover with drops".

This painting has been used since ancient times by the peoples of India and Indonesia. Batik came to Europe in the twentieth century.

Painting

Painting is one of the most ancient types of decorative arts. For centuries it has been an organic part of the original culture and life of the people. This kind of decorative art is widespread.

Here are some types of painting:

• Zhostovo painting is a famous Russian craft that appeared in the 19th century in the village of Zhostovo, not far from Moscow. It belongs to the most popular crafts where Russian folk painting is created. The famous Zhostovo trays are painted by hand. Most often, bouquets of flowers are depicted on a black background.
• Gorodets painting is a craft that appeared in the middle of the 19th century in the city of Gorodets. The painting is bright and laconic. Her themes are figurines of horses, genre scenes, flower patterns. Decorated doors, shutters, furniture, spinning wheels.
• Khokhloma painting is one of the oldest folk crafts. It originated in the 17th century in Khokhloma, not far from Nizhny Novgorod. Khokhloma painting is a decorative painting of wooden objects made on a golden background in black, red, less often green. After drawing the pattern, the product is coated with a special composition and three times processing in the oven, which allows you to achieve a unique honey-golden color. Traditional for Khokhloma are rowan and red strawberries, branches and flowers. Often animals, fish and birds appear in the compositions, turning the made into a genuine work of folk decorative art. Wooden gold - this is how the Khokhloma painting is often called.

Let's get acquainted with the various handicrafts used in kindergarten for the development of children.

Dymkovo toy

The products of Kirov craftsmen amaze with bright patterns, non-standard proportions and shapes. Everyone is delighted with elegant, wonderfully decorated and painted ladies-dandies, ponies, roosters, goats. The first Dymkovo toys appeared in 1811. At the Vyatka holiday, painted clay dolls were sold. Clay toys were made by craftsmen from the village of Dymkovo. They did this with their families.

Now a factory producing Dymkovo toys is operating in Kirov.

Filimonovskaya toy

The center of folk craft in the village of Filimonovo near Tula, where wonderful clay toys are born, is no less famous. People and animals made by the craftsmen are distinguished by their whimsical form and great expressiveness. These are peasant women, ladies, soldiers, cows, horse riders, rams. Filimonov toys cannot be confused with others, as they carry their unique features in the form of modeling and painting. They play with all the colors of the rainbow.

A child who sees a Filimonov toy with a non-standard color and shape awakens creativity.

Kargopol toy

Kargopol is an ancient city, whose inhabitants have long been engaged in pottery. Mostly they made dishes, but some craftsmen were engaged in clay toys. True, in 1930 the fishery fell into decay. The restoration of Kargopol workshops took place in 1967.

Kargopol toys look stricter against the background of bright Dymkovo and Filimonov toys. The range of colors is brown, black and dark green. There are many funny images, simple, but at the same time breathing warmth and humor. These are peasant women, bearded men, dolls with spinning wheels.

Gzhel dishes

The village of Gzhel is located not far from Moscow. Pottery has been practiced here since the 14th century. Among the utensils produced by the fermenters are plates and toys, which are painted with brown and yellowish-green ceramic paints. Now the porcelain products produced in Gzhel are world famous. The reason for this is the uniqueness of the form and pattern. Gzhel porcelain is distinguished by blue painting made on a white background. True, the blue is not uniform. If you look closely, you can find the subtlest shades and halftones that evoke thoughts of the blueness of the sky, river and lake water. In addition to tableware, toys and small sculptures are produced in Gzhel. Everything that the masters do amazes with the harmony of content and form. This is a real work of folk decorative art. Everyone dreams of buying Gzhel.

Decorative arts in kindergarten

The art of folk crafts is a property not only for adults. It is also important for children who can play with enthusiasm both with nesting dolls made of wood and with clay toys from Kirov craftsmen. The art of the people awakens the interest of children in the originality of ideas, imagery and brilliance. It is understandable to children, since its content is simple and laconic, but at the same time reveals to the child the beauty of the world around him. Here are the favorite fairy-tale images of animals, which are made of clay or wood, and ornaments with flowers, berries and leaves, which have been seen more than once in life. Craftsmen engaged in the manufacture of clay toys often decorate their works with an ornament of geometric shapes: stripes, rings, circles. These drawings also find understanding among kids. All clay and wood products in kindergartens are not only interior decoration. Guided by an experienced teacher, the guys look closely at them, drawing and modeling them on the basis of samples of folk products.

Folk decorative art in kindergarten enters the life of children, giving them joy, broadening their horizons, and having a positive impact on artistic taste. Preschool educational institutions should have a sufficient number of handicrafts. This allows you to decorate the interiors of groups, updating them after a while. Artistic products are shown to children when they talk about craftsmen. All such items must be stored in the closets of the pedagogy office. They must be constantly replenished and allocated to fisheries. Younger children need to purchase fun toys, chiseled wooden toys. For children of the middle group, Filimonov and Kargopol are better suited. All kinds of folk toys, including clay and wooden ones, are available to children of older groups.

Decorative molding in a kindergarten provides for the creation of dishes by children, various figures on the theme of folk toys. In addition, children can make small jewelry for dolls, souvenirs for mothers, grandmothers and sisters for the 8th of March.

Under the influence of classes with handicrafts, children are more deeply and interested in illustrations on Russian themes; toys with the richness of their themes spur the child's imagination during modeling lessons, making his knowledge of the world that surrounds him richer. Classes using folk art objects as illustrations provide an opportunity to develop the mind of kids.

However, a positive effect from this is achieved only if children are systematically and systematically introduced to the objects of decorative and applied art. Based on the knowledge gained, they create decorative works with their own hands. They are invited to reproduce a work of folk decorative art (any). A photo, if the work itself is not available, will help the child imagine that he will draw or sculpt.

The desire of children to engage in the creation of beautiful objects is largely determined by the attention of the educator himself to these issues. He must have information about folk crafts, be aware of the history of their appearance. If the teacher knows which folk craft a particular toy can be attributed to, and knows how to interestingly tell about the masters who make these toys, children will be interested, and they will have a desire to be creative.

Fine arts in elementary grades

Folk decorative art in the design activities of younger schoolchildren allows children to return to the origins of folk culture, to the spiritual heritage. In the modern world, the study of the wealth of national culture is the most important task of the moral education of children, turning them into patriots of their country. The soul of the nation is embodied in folk crafts, the historical memory of generations awakens. It is impossible to educate a full-fledged personality, to develop its moral potential, the aesthetic taste of children, if conversations about creativity are reduced to abstract reasoning. After all, the works of craftsmen are an illustration of the best qualities of a national character: this is the awakening of respect for one's own history and traditions, love for the homeland in general and for the place where he was born in particular, modesty, striving for beauty, a sense of harmony.

How to organize the educational process so that love for the homeland is not just a beautiful phrase, but really corresponds to the inner essence of the younger generation? What can be done if there are no performances that reveal vividly and figuratively the theme of patriotism? This issue, of course, requires an integrated approach. must be addressed systematically.

In order for the child to understand what is at stake, it is proposed to consider a work of folk decorative art (any) in the lesson. An example of such a work will help to understand the question.

The modern era requires an appeal to the very origins of art. Preserving, enhancing folk art, developing its traditions - these are difficult tasks facing teachers, educators, and art workers.

Fine arts in high school

As they grow up, children begin to understand more and more what a work of folk decorative art is. Grade 6 also systematically studies this issue.

The work program for the study of fine arts in grade 6 provides for three main types of creative activity:

1. Fine work (painting, drawing).
2. Decorative creativity (ornaments, paintings, applications).
3. Observation of the outside world (conversation).

These varieties allow children to become familiar with the fields of artistic creation. Already in the course of acquaintance, it becomes clear how closely these areas are interconnected and how noticeably they complement each other in the process of solving the tasks set by the program. It is necessary to subject each work of folk decorative art to a detailed analysis. Grade 6 is the time for the development of artistic taste.

Fine arts are taught at school in close connection with other subjects. It uses the knowledge gained as a result of studying literature, music, Russian language, history, technology, biology. This makes it possible to understand the practical meaning of fine art lessons, their vital necessity. The literature course also explores such a topic as "A work of folk decorative art". Composition (grade 6) allows the student to show knowledge of the subject. Children appreciate the products of folk craftsmen in it. They should draw up a work plan and describe the work of folk decorative art (any). 5-6 sentences for each point of the plan will be enough.

Folk decorative arts and Russia

Both Tatarstan and other regions of Russia were affected by folk art. Tatar decorative art is bright and multifaceted. It goes back to the ancient times of paganism - VII-VIII centuries. In the Kazan Khanate and Volga Bulgaria, the development of art proceeded in line with Islamic traditions. The leading direction was various. This type of pattern is widely manifested in various types of Tatar art. Ornaments adorn embroidery, wood and stone carvings, ceramics, jewelry, calligraphy. The zoomorphic style became widespread in the products of the Bulgarian masters of the pagan time.

A feature of Russian decorative art is its massive character. In Russia, decorative arts are most often anonymous. Gambs furniture and Faberge jewelry are the exception rather than the rule. Unnamed craftsmen created masterpieces of painting, weaving, crockery and toys. Artistic production in Russia can take pride in the creation of great values ​​in various fields.

The first evidence of the high development of blacksmith and jewelry industries can be found among the Scythians and tribes who lived in territories stretching from the Black Sea to Siberia. Here the preference was given to the Scythian animal style. The Northern Slavs, who were in contact with the inhabitants of Scandinavia, included in the ornament fragments of human and animal bodies, which are intricately intertwined. In the Urals, the Finno-Ugric tribes made amulets with images of bears and wolves, made of wood, stone or bronze.

There were many icon-painting workshops throughout Russia. In Palekh, Ivanovo region, the finest was developed on the plots of folk tales and songs on black varnish. From Ancient Byzantium, the filigree art of chasing, grain, mob, openwork carved wood and bone came to us. In the 17th century, decorative arts developed into developed artistic production. These are Rostov painted enamel, Nizhny Novgorod carving on huts, blackening over silver in Veliky Ustyug. Palaces and temples were decorated with works of folk masters of decorative arts.

In Peter's times, Western European things became fashionable: upholstered furniture, faience. Mirrors have been widely used since the 18th century. MV Lomonosov mastered the art of glass, mirrors and mosaic smalt production. Talented architects of the 18th and early 19th centuries developed projects for decorative furnishings for interiors. Some architects of that era began their career as decorators, for example Rossi and Voronikhin. The imperial court and the highest nobility of Russia supplied numerous orders to private enterprises that managed to reach the heights of skill. Such enterprises include the Kuznetsovsky faience and porcelain factories, the Popovsky porcelain factory.

The study of folk art and handicrafts shows that the popularization of works of folk art has the best effect on both adults and children. This fosters an aesthetic taste, contributes to the emergence of spiritual needs, evokes a sense of national pride and humanity. After all, amazing colorful objects are created by folk craftsmen, people whom nature has endowed with talent, imagination and kindness.

What is arts and crafts

Decorative and applied art is a complex and multifaceted cultural phenomenon. It covers many types of folk crafts associated with the creation of artistic products that have a practical purpose in everyday life, and the artistic processing of utilitarian objects (utensils, furniture, fabrics, tools, vehicles, clothing, jewelry, toys, etc.). Decorative and applied art lives with the people, rooted in hoary antiquity and developing today.

Works of decorative and applied art are usually closely related to the architectural and spatial environment, the ensemble (on the street, in the park, in the interior) and among themselves, forming an artistic complex. Having arisen in ancient times, arts and crafts have become one of the most important areas of folk art. Its history is associated with artistic craft, art industry, with the activities of professional artists and folk craftsmen, and since the beginning of the XX century. - with artistic construction and design.

Many fine examples of decorative and applied art can be seen in art, history, local history and ethnographic museums, as well as in books, albums and on the pages of magazines. Each exhibition of folk art is always a discovery of the world of beauty and wisdom. Products made by old and modern artists invariably inspire admiration of visitors, and some have a desire to follow the example of folk craftsmen.

It is important for everyone who comes into contact with works of decorative and applied art not to remain idle spectators, but to strive to be researchers, each time trying to understand what artistic and technical techniques the master was able to achieve perfection. Much of what each of you will try to do lovingly with your own hands will deliver to the people around you

Explore the arts and crafts in the tutorial pages. How and for what purpose did ancient people decorate household items and tools?

Analyze the symbolism of the ornaments in various works of arts and crafts. What information do the shapes and decorations of these objects carry?

Listen to folk tunes and tunes. What are the style items shown on the centerfold?

Embroidery

Since ancient times, embroidery has been a decoration of the hearth, it has given a zest to clothes, it has been used on tablecloths, napkins, curtains and towels, and it has been the basis of decorative and applied art in Ukraine and Russia.

Any housewife could, with the help of embroidery, give comfort to her home, decorate the clothes of her loved ones, realize her artistic ideas, since this type of decorative and applied art was available to everyone.

Embroideries of different peoples are full of variety and originality of patterns and colors, as they were created over the centuries and depended on the history and culture of peoples. Since in those days there were no fashion magazines where you can find a pattern for every taste, people put a certain meaning in embroidery.

Embroidery was not only a beautiful element in clothing, it also played an important role as a talisman. If you paid attention to embroidery, you probably noticed that geometric patterns are the most common among ornaments. So, for example, the ancient symbol of the sun, fertility and the feminine principle, which brings good luck and prosperity, was depicted in diamond-shaped embroidery. The symbol of water personified vitality and was applied in the form of wavy lines. Horizontal ornaments carried the symbol of the Earth and signified the prosperity of the family hearth.

If you noticed, then in some embroideries in the ornament a circle is depicted, in the inside of which a cross is embroidered, such an embroidery element symbolizes the Sun and serves as a talisman that removes evil from a person. But the embroidered cross in the pattern denotes spiritual cleansing, as it is a symbol of fire.

The Ukrainians gave preference to towel ornaments, which were of a plant character, and the image of birds and animals was also widespread. In the color scheme, they mainly preferred to use red, black and blue.

Floral motifs in embroidery were not invented simply and also had their own specific meaning. The image in the ornament of oak leaves symbolized strength, and viburnum was considered a symbol of beauty. Poppies embroidered on clothes meant fertility and memory of the family, and grapes brought happiness and joy into family life. The embroidered periwinkle was a symbol of loyalty, while roses were a symbol of youth and love.

Also in Ukrainian ornaments you can often find images of doves, swallows, roosters, horses and other animals and birds. Such embroidery served as amulets, protecting a person from various evil forces and spirits.

Ukrainian embroidered shirt

An integral part of men's and women's wardrobe in Ukrainians has always been an embroidered shirt. The ornament on the shirt characterized a certain area. By these patterns, one could easily distinguish the inhabitants of Poltava from the population of the Podolsk Territory, and the Hutsul ornaments differed from the Polissya ones. A distinctive feature of these embroidered shirts were not only patterns, but also the technique of execution and colors.

In Ukraine, women were mainly engaged in embroidery. They devoted every free minute to this craft. They embroidered during their gatherings together, and while whiling away the long winter evenings, and even after the field work, during a short rest, you can often see a Ukrainian woman doing embroidery.

Ukrainian girls put love and soul into creating ornaments on their clothes, and the embroidered shirt wearing them was a characteristic of her skill and hard work.

With the acquisition of its independence, the people's love for their traditions began to revive in Ukraine. Recently, Ukrainian embroidered shirts have begun to gain popularity again. She has become a fashionable trend not only among compatriots, but also far beyond its borders. People in embroidered shirts can be found everywhere. It looks appropriate, both at special events and at school graduations, at weddings or rallies.

Artistic embroidery has embodied the best traditions of our people and has found a thousand admirers of this beautiful type of decorative and applied art.

Artistic and creative tasks

Pick up information about the history of one of the famous folk crafts, prepare an album, a stand, a computer presentation, introduce your classmates to it.

> Sketch a painting based on any Russian folk craft: Zhostovo, Gorodets, Khokhloma, etc. (optional), on one of the themes: "Seasons", "Morning", "Forest Fairy Tale",
"Golden rye", etc.

> Prepare an exhibition of arts and crafts of different genres with classmates. Think over the musical accompaniment, pick up samples of folk verbal creativity (excerpts from fairy tales, legends, proverbs, sayings, etc.). Take a tour of this exposition for younger students, parents, school guests.

What is Ancient Russia like? In a kokoshnik and a sundress embroidered with silver? Or maybe in trousers and a beard? No...
Ancient Russia is the breadth of the soul, it is endless green fields, it is folk art that still amazes with its intricacy and, at the same time, simplicity of form. I remember the first time I saw the Intercession Church, performed without a single nail. Perfect domes rose harmoniously above the forest. Or maybe this is Russia, that Russia, which was written about in books, which was feared and respected. Maybe so. However, today I want to acquaint you with the most interesting hall of the Russian Museum - the Hall of Decorative and Applied Arts.

The collection of the hall is one of the largest in Russia. The main exhibition belongs to the 17th - 19th centuries. Several rooms are reserved for exhibitions. Here you can see household items of Ancient Russia, folk costumes, art miniatures and amazingly beautiful decorated huts.

Women's folk costume of that time is an inextinguishable source of ideas for artists and designers. See how harmoniously the patterns are selected, how elegant and at the same time modest the shirt and sundress look.

I was especially delighted with the headdresses of merchants and noblewomen. Kokoshniks are embroidered with pearls, gold and silver threads, precious stones. Even under glass, the considerable weight of these products is noticeable. And size is another story altogether. In films and theatrical performances, women's headdresses of Russia are rather miniature in comparison with their predecessors.

Women's suits are made of brocade, silk and damask. Somewhere they have preserved pagan motives, and somewhere they reflect craft artistic traditions. There are significantly fewer men's attire in the museum. And the man's suit consisted of a shirt, pants, belt and headdress.

Household items that have survived to this day are of great value. Not many wooden crafts for the kitchen, toys and funny miniatures have come down to us.

Also in the Russian Museum is a collection of spinning wheels of the 19-20 centuries. It was created by masters from the Petersburg, Novgorod, Olonets and Arkhangelsk provinces. Northern craftsmen made spinning wheels for their wives and daughters. So, the daughter received the first spinning wheel from her father in childhood. The second spinning wheel after matchmaking, and the third from her husband.

In the folk art of Russia, there is a special approach to the design of your home. The craftsmen tried to create real works of art using a variety of artistic ornaments.

Yesenin wrote: “... music and the epic were born together through the sign of the tree, - makes us think of this not as an accidental fact of a mythical statement, but as a strict, measured representation of our distant ancestors. no one household ornament.
All our skates on the roofs, roosters on the shutters, pigeons on the princely porch, flowers on bed linen and bed linen along with towels are not of a simple ornamental character, this is a great significant epic of the outcome of the world and the purpose of man. "

Indeed, Russian huts are not just a dwelling decorated with patterns. This is a real treasure of ancient knowledge, which, at times, is not easy to unravel.

Decorative and applied arts, art section; covers a number of branches of creativity that are devoted to the creation of art products intended mainly for everyday life. His works can be: various utensils, furniture, fabrics, tools, vehicles, as well as clothes and all kinds of ornaments. Along with the division of works of decorative and applied art according to their practical purpose in scientific literature from the second half of the 19th century. the classification of industries by material (metal, ceramics, textiles, wood) or by technique of execution (carving, painting, embroidery, printing, casting, chasing, intarsia, etc.) was approved. This classification is due to the important role of the constructive and technological principle in arts and crafts and its direct connection with production. Solving in aggregate, like architecture, practical and artistic tasks, arts and crafts at the same time belong to the spheres of creation of both material and spiritual values. Works of this type of art are inseparable from the material culture of the epoch of their time, are closely related to the way of life corresponding to it, with one or another of its local ethnic and national characteristics, social and group differences. Composing an organic part of the objective environment with which a person comes into contact on a daily basis, works of decorative and applied art with their aesthetic merits, imagery, character constantly affect a person's state of mind, his mood, are an important source of emotions that affect his attitude to the world around him.

Aesthetically saturating the environment surrounding a person, the works of this genre are at the same time, as it were, absorbed by it, since are usually perceived in conjunction with its architectural and spatial solution, with other objects included in it or their complexes (a service, a set of furniture, a suit, a set of jewelry). Therefore, the ideological content of works of decorative and applied art can be understood most fully only with a clear idea (real or mentally recreated) about these interrelationships of the object with the environment and with a person.

The architectonics of an object, due to its purpose, constructive capabilities and plastic properties of the material, often plays a fundamental role in the composition of an artistic product. Often in arts and crafts, the beauty of the material, the proportional proportions of the parts, the rhythmic structure are the only means of embodying the emotional-figurative content of the product (for example, glassware or other non-tinted materials devoid of decor). Here, the special significance for decorative and applied art of purely emotional, non-pictorial means of artistic language is clearly manifested, the use of which makes it related to architecture. An emotional-meaningful image is often activated by an image-association (by comparing the shape of a product with a drop, flower, a figure of a person, an animal, its individual elements, with some other product - a bell, baluster, etc.). The decor, appearing on the product, also significantly affects its figurative structure. Often, it is thanks to its decor that a household item becomes a work of art. Possessing its own emotional expressiveness, its own rhythm and proportions (often contrasting with respect to the form, as, for example, in the products of Khokhloma masters, where the modest, simple shape of the bowl and the elegant, festive painting of the surface are different in their emotional sound), the decor visually changes the shape and at the same time, it merges with it in a single artistic image.

To create the decor, ornament and elements (separately or in various combinations) of fine art (sculpture, painting, less often graphics) are widely used. The means of fine arts and ornamentation serve not only to create decor, but sometimes penetrate into the shape of the object (furniture details in the form of palmettes, volutes, animal paws, heads; vessels in the form of a flower, fruit, a figure of a bird, an animal, a person). Sometimes an ornament or image becomes the basis for the shaping of a product (lattice pattern, lace; weaving pattern of fabric, carpet). The need to coordinate the decor with the form, the image - with the scale and nature of the product, with its practical and artistic purpose leads to the transformation of pictorial motives, to the conventionality of interpretation and comparison of elements of nature (for example, the combination in the design of the table leg motifs of a lion's paw, eagle's wings and a swan's head ).

In the unity of the artistic and utilitarian functions of the product, in the interpenetration of form and decor, visual and tectonic principles, the synthetic character of decorative and applied art is manifested. His works are designed for perception both by sight and touch. Therefore, the revelation of the beauty of the texture and plastic properties of the material, the skill and variety of methods of its processing, in arts and crafts, acquire the significance of especially active means of aesthetic influence.

Painting

Painting, a form of fine art, works of art that are created using paints applied to any hard surface. Like other types of art, painting fulfills ideological and cognitive tasks, and also serves as a sphere for creating object aesthetic values, being one of the highly developed forms of human labor.

Painting reflects and in the light of certain concepts evaluates the spiritual content of the era, its social development. Powerfully influencing the feelings and thoughts of the audience, forcing the latter to experience the reality depicted by the artist, it serves as an effective means of social education. Many works of painting have documentary and informational value.

Due to the visibility of the way, the artist's assessment of life, expressed in his work, acquires special persuasiveness for the viewer. Creating artistic images, painting uses color and pattern, the expressiveness of strokes, which ensures the flexibility of its language, allows it to reproduce the colorful richness of the world, the volume of objects, their qualitative originality and material flesh, the depth of the depicted space, in full on the plane, inaccessible to other types of fine art, light-air environment. Painting not only directly and visually embodies all visible phenomena of the real world (including nature in its various states), shows broad pictures of people's life, but also strives to reveal and interpret the essence of the processes taking place in life and the inner world of a person.

The breadth and completeness of coverage of reality available to this type of art is also reflected in the abundance of genres inherent in it (historical, everyday, battle, animalistic, etc.).

By purpose, by the nature of execution and images, they are distinguished: monumental and decorative painting (wall paintings, ceiling lamps, panels), participating in the organization of the architectural space, creating an ideologically rich environment for a person; easel (paintings), more intimate in character, usually not associated with any particular place; decoration (sketches of theatrical and film sets and costumes); icon painting; miniature (illustrations of manuscripts, portraits, etc.).

By the nature of the substances that bind the pigment (coloring matter), by the technological methods of fixing the pigment on the surface, oil painting, painting with water paints on plaster - raw (fresco) and dry (a secco), tempera, glue painting, wax painting, enamel, painting ceramic paints (binders - low-melting glasses, fluxes, glazes - are fixed by firing on ceramics), silicate paints (the binder is soluble glass), etc. -decorative tasks. Watercolors, gouache, pastels, and ink are also used for painting.

The main expressive means of painting - color - with its expression, the ability to evoke various sensory associations, enhances the emotionality of the image, determines the wide visual and decorative possibilities of this type of art. In his works, he forms an integral system (color). Usually one or another series of interrelated colors and their shades (gamma of colorful) is used, although there is also painting in shades of the same color (monochrome). The color composition (the system of location and relationship of color spots) ensures a certain color unity of the work, affects the course of its perception by the viewer, being a part of its artistic structure specific to the work. Another expressive means of painting - drawing (line and chiaroscuro) - rhythmically and compositionally, together with color, organizes the image; the line delimits volumes from each other, is often the constructive basis of the pictorial form, allows generalized or detailed reproduction of the outlines of objects, to reveal their smallest elements.

Architecture

Architecture (lat. Architectura, from the Greek. Architéktón - builder), architecture, the system of buildings and structures that form the spatial environment for the life and activities of people, as well as the very art of creating these buildings and structures in accordance with the laws of beauty. Architecture is a necessary part of the means of production and material means of subsistence of human society. Her artistic images play a significant role in the spiritual life of society. The functional, constructive and aesthetic qualities of architecture (utility, strength, beauty) are interrelated.

Works of architecture are buildings with an organized interior space, ensembles of buildings, as well as structures that serve to decorate open spaces (monuments, terraces, embankments, etc.).

The subject of a purposeful organization is the space of a populated place as a whole. The creation of cities, settlements and the regulation of the entire settlement system stood out in a special area, inseparably linked with architecture - urban planning.

The most important means of practical solution of the function, and ideological and artistic tasks of architecture is construction equipment. It determines the possibility and economic feasibility of the implementation of certain spatial systems. The aesthetic properties of architectural works largely depend on the constructive solution. The building has to not only be, but also look solid. Excess material gives the impression of being too heavy; visible (apparent) lack of material is associated with instability, unreliability and causes negative emotions. In the course of the development of building technology, new principles of architectural composition, corresponding to the properties of new materials and structures, may come into conflict with traditional aesthetic views. But as the structure spreads and further assimilates, the forms determined by it not only cease to be perceived as unusual, but also turn in the mass consciousness into a source of emotional and aesthetic impact.

Qualitative changes in construction equipment, the creation of new structures and materials have significantly influenced modern architecture. Of particular importance is the replacement of handicraft construction methods with industrial ones, associated with the general processes of production development, with the need to increase the rate of mass construction and requiring the introduction of standardization, unified structures and parts.

The main means of creating an artistic image in architecture are the formation of space and architectonics. When creating a volumetric-spatial composition (including the internal organization of structures), the principles of symmetry or asymmetry, nuances or contrasts when comparing elements, their various rhythmic relationships, etc. are used. Of particular importance in architecture are the proportionality of the parts and the whole to each other (system of proportions) and the proportionality of the structure and its individual forms to man (scale). The artistic means of architecture also include texture and color, the variety of which is achieved by various methods of processing the surface of the building. A holistic artistic and expressive system of forms of works of architecture that meets functional and structural requirements is called an architectural composition.

The stable commonality of the characteristic features of the artistic form of architecture and its ideological and content program forms its style. The most important features of the style are manifested in the system of functional and spatial organization of buildings, in their architectonics, proportions, plastics, and decor.

Sculpture

Sculpture (Latin sculptura, from sculpo - I carve, cut out), sculpture, plastic (Greek plastike, from plasso - I mold), an art form based on the principle of a volumetric, physically three-dimensional image of an object. As a rule, the object of the image in sculpture is a person, less often - animals (animalistic genre), even less often - nature (landscape) and things (still life). The positioning of a figure in space, the transmission of its movement, posture, gesture, black and white modeling, which enhances the relief of the form, the architectonic organization of the volume, the visual effect of its mass, weight relations, the choice of proportions, specific in each case, the character of the silhouette are the main expressive means of this type of art. A volumetric sculptural form is built in real space according to the laws of harmony, rhythm, balance, interaction with the surrounding architectural or natural environment and on the basis of the anatomical (structural) features of a particular model observed in nature.

There are two main types of sculpture: a round sculpture, which is freely placed in space, and a relief, where the image is located on a plane that forms its background. The works of the first, usually requiring a circular view, include: a statue (a figure in height), a group (two or more figures that make up a single whole), a figurine (a figure that is significantly smaller than life size), a torso (an image of a human body), a bust (chest image of a person), etc.

According to the content and functions, the sculpture is divided into monumental-decorative, easel, etc. small sculpture. Although these species develop in close interaction, each of them has its own characteristics. Monumental-decorative: the sculpture is designed for a specific architectural-spatial or natural environment. It has a pronounced public character, is addressed to the masses of spectators, and is located primarily in public places - on the streets and squares of the city, in parks, on the facades and in the interiors of public buildings. Monumental and decorative sculpture is designed to concretize the architectural image, to complement the expressiveness of architectural forms with new shades. The ability of monumental and decorative sculpture to solve large ideological and figurative problems is especially fully revealed in works that are called monumental and which usually include city monuments, monuments, and memorial structures. The majesty of the forms and the durability of the material are combined in them with the elevation of the figurative structure, the breadth of generalization. Easel sculpture, not directly related to architecture, is more intimate. Halls of exhibitions, museums, residential interiors, where it can be viewed up close and in all details, are its usual environment. Thus, the peculiarities of the plastic language of sculpture, its size, favorite genres (portrait, genre, nude, animalistic genre) are determined. Easel sculpture, to a greater extent than monumental and decorative, is characterized by an interest in the inner world of a person, subtle psychologism, and narrative. Small-scale sculpture includes a wide range of works intended primarily for residential interiors, and in many ways merges with arts and crafts.

The purpose and content of a sculptural work determine the nature of its plastic structure, and this, in turn, influences the choice of sculptural material. The technique of sculpture largely depends on the natural features and methods of processing the latter. Soft substances (clay, wax, plasticine, etc.) are used for modeling; the most commonly used tools are wire rings and stacks. Solids (various types of stone, wood, etc.) are processed by cutting (cutting) or carving, removing unnecessary parts of the material and gradually releasing the volumetric form that is hidden in it; for processing a stone block, a hammer (mallet) and a set of metal tools are used, for processing wood - mainly shaped chisels and drills. Substances capable of passing from a liquid to a solid state (various metals, gypsum, concrete, plastic, etc.) are used for casting sculptures using specially made molds.

Theatre

Theater (from the Greek. Théatron - a place for spectacles; spectacle), a kind of art. Theater is a form of social consciousness, it is inseparable from the life of the people, its national history and culture. The theater usually achieves artistic upsurge when, imbued with the advanced ideas of the era, it fights for humanistic ideals, deeply and truthfully reveals the complexity of a person's inner world, his aspirations.

Artistic reflection of life, the approval of certain ideas, worldview, ideology is performed in the theater through a dramatic action performed by actors in front of the audience. The struggle of characters, the disclosure of social and psychological conflicts that affect the fate of people, their relationships are at the heart of the play, performance. The specificity of the theater requires the emotional and spiritual unity of the stage and the audience, the presence of common interests between the creators of the performance and the audience. Theater plays an important role in aesthetic, moral and political education. For this he has at his disposal rich means of artistic generalization, expressiveness, influence on the mass audience.

Theatrical performance is based on drama. The theater transfers a literary work into the area of ​​stage action and specific theatrical imagery; the characters and conflicts of the drama are embodied in living persons and actions. Word, speech is the most important means with which the theater is armed with drama. In the theater, the word also obeys the laws of dramatic action. In some cases, he turns speech into a means of everyday characterization of the character, in others, he reveals, through the verbal fabric of the role, complex conflicts of consciousness and psychology of the hero. Speech on stage can take the form of a lengthy statement (monologue), proceed as a conversation with a partner (dialogue), address the viewer or sound like a reflection of a hero, his "inner monologue", etc.

Theater is a collective art. A performance is a work that has artistic unity, harmony of all elements. It is created under the direction of the director and in accordance with the director's intention by the joint efforts of actors, set designer, composer, choreographer and many others. The performance is based on the director's interpretation of the play, its genre, stylistic solution. The action of the performance is organized in time (tempo, rhythm, rise and fall of emotional stress) and in space (development of stage platforms, the principle of its use, mise-en-scène, scenery, movement, etc.).

The main bearer of theatrical action is an actor, in whose work the essence of theater is embodied: the ability to capture the audience of arts. the spectacle of life directly proceeding before their eyes, the creative process of its embodiment. The actor's image is created on the basis of the play and its interpretation by the director of the play. But even in the system of a strictly organized performance, the actor remains an independent artist, able only to him alone to recreate a living human image on the stage, to convey the complexity and richness of human psychology. Work on oneself and on the role in the process of rehearsals constitutes, as KS Stanislavsky believed, two inextricably linked sides of the actor's activity.

Often an actor creates an image on the stage that is dissimilar to his own, in different roles changes externally and internally. When embodying the appearance, character of the character, the performer uses the means of plastic and rhythmic expressiveness, the art of speech, facial expressions, gesture. The history of world theater knows actors who had a virtuoso skill in external transformation.

In musical theater, action is embodied by the means of musical drama, which is based on the general laws of drama - the presence of a clearly expressed central conflict that is revealed in the struggle of opposing forces, a certain sequence of stages in the disclosure of dramas. design. In each of the types of musical stage art, these general laws find a specific refraction according to the nature of their expressive means: in opera, the action taking place on the stage is expressed by music, that is, by the singing of the characters, as well as by the sound of the orchestra; in ballet, dance and pantomime play a role similar to singing in opera. At the same time, in both cases, music is the main generalizing means that binds all the elements of the drama together. In the operetta, which is a kind of opera with a spoken dialogue, the couplet song and dance are of great importance. Expressive means of dramatic, opera and choreographic arts, pop and everyday music are used in the musical genre.

Music

Music (from the Greek musike, literally - the art of the muses), an art form that reflects reality and affects a person through meaningful and specially organized sound sequences, consisting mainly of tones. Music is a specific kind of sound activity of people. With other varieties (speech, instrumental-sound signaling, etc.), it is united by the ability to express thoughts, emotions and volitional processes of a person in an audible form and to serve as a means of communication between people and control of their behavior. At the same time, it differs significantly from all other types of human sound activity. While preserving some semblance of sounds of real life, musical sound fundamentally differ from them in strict high-altitude and temporal (rhythmic) organization. These sounds are part of the historically formed systems, which are based on tones. In each piece of music, the tones form their own system of vertical connections and horizontal successions - its form.

Emotional states and processes (as well as volitional aspirations) play a dominant role in the content of music. Their leading place in musical content is predetermined by the sound (intonation) and temporal nature of the music, which allows it, on the one hand, to rely on the centuries-old experience of people externalizing their emotions and transmitting them to other members of society, primarily and mainly through sounds and, on the other - to adequately express emotional experience as a movement, a process with all its changes and shades, dynamic ups and downs, mutual transitions of emotions and their collisions.

Of the different kinds of emotions, music mainly embodies moods. The emotional aspects of the intellectual and volitional qualities of the individual (and the corresponding processes) are also widely represented in the musical content. This allows this type of art to reveal not only the psychological states of people, but also their characters. In the most concrete (but not translatable into the language of words), very subtle and "infectious" expression of emotions, music is unmatched. It is on this that the widespread definition of it as the “language of the soul” is based (AN Serov).

Striving for a broader coverage of the world of philosophical and social ideas, composers often go beyond the so-called pure (instrumental, non-programmed) music, referring to the word as a carrier of concrete conceptual content (vocal and programmed instrumental music, see Programmed music), as well as to stage action. Thanks to synthesis with words, actions, etc., new types of musical images are formed, which are firmly associated in the public consciousness with concepts and ideas expressed by other components of synthesis, and then pass into "pure" music as carriers of the same concepts and ideas. To express thoughts, composers also use sound symbols (which have arisen in public practice, chants or tunes that exist in a certain social environment, which have become “musical emblems” of certain concepts) or create their own, new “musical signs” (for example, leitmotifs). As a result, M.'s content includes a huge and continuously enriched range of ideas.

The content of different kinds is available to music: epic, dramatic, lyrical. At the same time, however, due to her non-pictorial nature, the lyrics are closest to her.

The material embodiment of the content of music, the way of its existence is the musical form - that system of musical sounds, in which the emotions, thoughts and imaginative representations of the composer are realized. Even taken separately, musical sounds already have primary expressive capabilities. Each of them is capable of causing a physiological sensation of pleasure or displeasure, excitement or calming, tension or discharge, as well as synesthetic sensations (heaviness or lightness, warmth or cold, darkness or light, etc.) and the simplest spatial associations.

In each piece of music, from the individual elements of its form, in the process of their unification and subordination, a general structure is formed, consisting of several private structures. The latter include structures: melodic, rhythmic, harmonic, textured, timbre, dynamic, etc. The thematic structure is of particular importance, the elements of which are musical themes (together with various types and stages of their change and development). In most musical styles, it is the themes that are the material carriers of musical images.

Music has its own structure. So, in a developed musical culture, creativity is represented by many varieties, which can be differentiated according to various characteristics. 1) By the type of content: lyrical, epic, dramatic, as well as heroic, tragic, humorous, etc.; in another aspect - serious music and light music. 2) By performing assignment: vocal and instrumental; in another aspect - solo, ensemble, orchestral, choral, mixed (with possible further clarification of the compositions: for example, for a symphony orchestra, for a chamber orchestra, for jazz, etc.). 3) By synthesis with other types of art and with the word: theater music, dance music, program instrumental, melodrama (reading to music), vocal with words. Music outside of synthesis - vocalizations (singing without words) and "pure" instrumental (without a program). In turn, the first is divided into spectacular and concert, the second - into mass household and ceremonial. Each of the formed four varieties (genre groups) can be differentiated further.

Cinematography

Cinematography, a kind of art, the works of which are created with the help of filming real, specially staged or recreated by means of animation of the events of reality.

In the art of cinema, the aesthetic properties of literature, theatrical and visual arts, and music are synthesized on the basis of its own inherent, expressive means, of which the main are the photographic nature of the image, which allows you to recreate any pictures of reality with the utmost reliability, and montage. The mobility of the camera and the variety of optics used in shooting make it possible to represent in the frame huge spaces and large masses of people (general plan), small groups of people in their relationships (medium plan), a human portrait or a separate detail (close-up). Thanks to this, the most essential, aesthetically significant aspects of the depicted object can be distinguished within the frame. The combination of frames in the montage serves as an expression of the author's thought, creates the continuity of the development of the action, organizes the visual narration, allows by comparing the separate. plans to metaphorically interpret the action, forms the rhythm of the film.

The creation of a work of cinema, as a rule, is a complex creative and production process, which combines the work of artists of different specialties: a screenwriter (scriptwriter); the director, who determines the interpretation and implementation of the idea and directs the work of the rest of the participants in the production; actors who embody the characters; an operator characterizing the action by means of compositional, tonal and color interpretation of frames; an artist who finds a pictorial characteristic of the environment of the action and the costumes of the characters (and in animation and the external characteristics of the characters); composer, etc.

During the development of cinematography, 4 main types of it have been formed: artistic (fictional) cinematography, embodying by means of performing creativity works of film dramaturgy or adapted works of prose, drama, poetry; documentary cinematography, which is a special type of figurative journalism, based mainly on the direct fixation of reality on film; cartoon cinematography, "animating" graphic or puppet characters; popular science cinematography, using these 3 types of media to promote scientific knowledge.

Possibilities of epic, lyric and drama are available to fiction cinematography, but in narrative films there are always features that bring them closer to drama, in particular, dramatic conflict. Documentary cinematography has the full breadth of possibilities of the journalistic genres of literature and journalism. It combines works of figurative film journalism and information films (film reporting). Images of graphic and volumetric animation are created by shooting motionless sequential phases of movement of drawn or puppet characters. She pays special attention to the creation of films for children. Popular science cinematography acquaints viewers with the life of nature and society, scientific discoveries and inventions, recreates the course of the creative searches of scientists and masters of the arts, clearly demonstrates physical, chemical and biological processes. To solve these problems, she uses both purely didactic and artistic-figurative means, depending on the theme and task of the film.

The genres of cinematography, which were relatively clearly delineated in the early stages of cinema development (melodrama, adventure film, comic tape, etc.), are changing, tending to merge, interpenetration, or even disintegration. The innovative aspirations of filmmakers determine the combination in one work of features characteristic of prose, drama, and lyrics.

DECORATIVE AND APPLIED ARTS, an art form, creating products that combine artistic and utilitarian functions. Works of decorative and applied art are associated with the everyday needs of people, they constitute an integral part of the human environment. The basis and source of arts and crafts is folk art. The sphere of arts and crafts includes products of traditional arts and crafts, art industry and professional copyright art. The term "applied art" originated in the 18th century in England and was applied mainly to the creation of household items (painting dishes, fabrics, weapons decoration). In the 20th century in Russian art history the term "decorative and applied art" was established as a designation for the section of decorative arts, which also included theatrical and decorative arts and design.

A specific feature of works of decorative and applied art is the inextricable link between the utilitarian and the artistic, the unity of benefit and beauty, function and decoration. Utility allows us to classify works of decorative and applied art according to their practical purpose (tools, furniture, dishes, etc.); the function of an object clearly determines its constructive scheme. The quality that gives the object of decorative and applied art the status of a work of art is decorativeness. It is realized not only in the decoration of the object with any particular details (decor), but also in its general compositional and plastic structure. The decor has its own emotional expressiveness, rhythm, proportions; he is able to change shape. The decor can be sculptural and relief, pictorially painted, graphically carved (see also Engraving); he uses both ornament (including decorative inscriptions - hieroglyphs, calligraphy, Slavic script, etc., revealing the meaning of the images), and various pictorial elements and motives ("world tree", birds and animals, plants, etc.) in accordance with a certain decorative and stylistic system (see also Bucranius, Griffin, Rose, Sphinx). In the lamellar system of arts and crafts, there is the possibility of using the so-called pure form as an antithesis to any decor: it can manifest itself in the intrinsic beauty of the material, revealing its structural, plastic, color qualities, harmony of proportions, grace of silhouette and contours.

Vessel. Painted ceramics. 3rd millennium BC. Yangshao (China). Museum of Decorative and Applied Arts (Vienna).

Another fundamental feature of arts and crafts is synthetics, which implies the combination of various types of creativity (painting, graphics, sculpture) and different materials in one work. Synthetic in nature, a work of decorative and applied art is often involved in the synthesis of arts, in an ensemble of artistic objects, and may depend on architecture (furniture, decorative sculpture, panels, tapestry, carpet, etc.). As a result of this dependence, decorative and applied art in all epochs sensitively and visually followed changes in styles and changes in fashion.

In arts and crafts, the image of a thing is determined by the relationship between its aesthetic form and functional purpose. On the one hand, there is the concept of the utilitarian and non-pictorial nature of arts and crafts as “making things”: a purely practical task does not imply the creation of a full-fledged image (for example, the goal of pottery or basket weaving is not an image of things, but the creation of the thing itself). However, other examples (anthropomorphic ceramics, etc.), which carry a mimetic principle, allow us to speak of imagery as the primary task of creativity in arts and crafts, which manifests itself primarily in associations and analogies (the shape of an object can resemble a flower bud, drop, human or animal figure, sea wave, etc.). The dualism of aesthetic and functional tasks determines the figurative specificity of arts and crafts (limiting the concreteness of images, the tendency to reject chiaroscuro and perspective, the use of local colors, flatness of images and silhouettes).

Decorative and applied art as a type of artistic activity is associated with the manual labor of the master, which has emerged as an independent branch of production. Further social division of labor leads to the replacement of handicraft production by machine production (manufactories, factories, factories); functional design and decoration become the work of different specialists. This is how the art industry arises, where the methods of "applied art" find their place - decoration of products with painting, carving, inlay, embossing, etc.

The question of the relationship between manual and machine labor in the manufacture of decorative and applied arts was especially acute in the 2nd half of the 19th century, in the context of the problem of "depersonalization" (in the words of W. Morris) by the production of artistic handicrafts and theories of limited use popular in this era machines as a prerequisite for the revival of national traditions. Contrasting folk art and mass production, Morris at the same time suggests ways of their synthesis, allowing to create a new type of arts and crafts. Design, which since the middle of the 19th century has become a new type of artistic activity in the field of industrial (mass) production, limited arts and crafts mainly to the creation of small-run series of handicrafts (see also Manufacturing Art).

Typology... Each area of ​​arts and crafts has a wide variety of forms; their evolution is directly related to the development of technologies, with the discovery of new materials, with a change in aesthetic ideas and fashion. Works of decorative and applied art differ in their functional purpose, in their form and material.

One of the oldest types of arts and crafts is tableware. Its forms varied depending on the material (wood, metal, clay, porcelain, ceramic, glass, plastic) and purpose (ritual, household, dining, decorative; see also Art vessels). Decorative and applied art also includes: cult accessories (banners, salaries, lamps - in Christianity; Muslim vessels for ablution, prayer rugs "namazlyk", etc.; Jewish menorah candelabra; Buddhist lotus thrones and temple incense burners); interior items (furniture, lighting fixtures, vases, mirrors, writing instruments, boxes, fans, snuff boxes, tiles, etc.); household handicraft utensils (spinning wheels, rolls, ruffles, ruffles, spindles, etc.); works of glyptics; Jewelry Art; means of transportation (carts, chariots, carriages, sleighs, etc.); weapon; textiles (see also Batik, Embroidery, Lace, Heaping, Weaving; textiles also include carpets, tapestries, tapestries, kilims, felts, etc.); clothes; partly - small plastic (primarily a toy).

The materials used in arts and crafts are just as varied. The oldest are stone, wood, bone. Hardwoods were used for the construction of dwellings, for the manufacture of furniture, household products [pine, oak, walnut (in the art of the Renaissance), Karelian birch (in the era of Russian classicism and Empire), maple (especially in the modern era), mahogany, pear] ; soft varieties (for example, linden) - for the manufacture of dishes, spoons. From the 17th century, imported exotic woods began to be used in Europe.

Clay techniques such as hand molding and molding were crucial in the creation of clay products in the early stages. In the 3rd millennium BC, a potter's wheel appears, which makes it possible to make thin-walled dishes.

Ceramics (fired clay) includes terracotta (plain and lacquered), majolica, semi-faience, faience, opaque, porcelain, biscuit, so-called stone mass. The main ways of decorating ceramics are molding, glazing, polishing, color painting, engraving, glazing, etc.

Fabrics have been widely used since the Neolithic era. Outstanding examples of decorative and applied art are ancient Egyptian multicolored linen fabrics, in the technique of batik printing - Coptic; silk fabrics of China, Indian muslins, Venetian damask.

Craftsmen often used precious, semi-precious and colored ornamental stones: diamonds, rubies, emeralds, sapphires, jade, lapis lazuli and carnelian, malachite, jasper, etc. (amber also belongs to ornamental materials). Among the various types of processing, cabochons (rounded stones) prevailed for a long time, then faceted stones appeared. There are complex techniques - the so-called Florentine mosaic (images of marble and semi-precious stones), Russian mosaic (pasting the rounded surface of vases with plates of colored stones), etc.

Box with a picture of a crucifix and angels. Wood, silver, enamel. 1st quarter of the 13th century. Limoges (France). Hermitage (St. Petersburg).

Among the metals are precious (gold, silver, platinum), non-ferrous (copper, tin), alloys (bronze, electr, pewter), as well as steel, cast iron and aluminum. Along with noble metals, copper, bronze, and later iron were processed in almost all ancient civilizations. Gold and silver were originally the main metals in arts and crafts, and their shortage was compensated for by various techniques (galvanic silvering and gilding; from the middle of the 19th century - electroplating). The main metalworking techniques are niello, granulating, chasing, shotting, artistic casting, artistic forging, basma (a type of jewelry technique that imitates chasing), embossing.

A special technique and at the same time a material is enamel, the oldest examples of which are found in China. Enamel, as a rule, was used as an integral part of complex works of decorative and applied art (for example, the technique of covering images engraved on metal with multi-colored transparent enamel or decorative painting with enamel paints).

The salary of the so-called Gospel of Lorsch. Ivory. 9th century. Aachen. Victoria and Albert Museum (London).

According to its technological parameters, glass is divided into transparent and opaque, colorless and colored, etc. The original forms of blown, blown glass (“winged” Venetian glasses), from faceted English crystal, from pressed (appeared in 1820 in the USA) also differ. colored laminated or milky glass, filigree, engraved, carved, polished or tinted glass. Glass processing techniques include interglass gilding, painting, millefiori, artistic etching, iridescence.

The homeland of artistic varnishes is the Ancient East. They have been known in Europe since the 16th century; in the 17th century, Dutch craftsmen began to paint wooden boxes with gilded ornaments on a black background. Later, the production of painted varnishes appeared in many countries. Lacquered papier-mâché products appeared in Europe in the 18th century, reaching their peak in the 19th century, especially in England, Germany and Russia. In the 20th century, Russia becomes the main center of lacquer art (Fedoskino, Palekh, Kholui and Mstera).

The use of tortoiseshell and ivory dates back to antiquity; then their use was revived in European art in the Middle Ages and, especially, at the end of the 18th century (English and French snuff boxes and caddies, Kholmogory bone carving). Mother-of-pearl came into vogue in the 1st half of the 19th century for decorating papier-mâché and varnish products, and for finishing cutlery.

Historical sketch. The first artistically processed objects appeared in the Paleolithic era. During the Neolithic period, pottery was widespread. In different cultures, vases are created with a virtuoso graphic of artistic solutions, an expressive sacred and mythological plot, painted ceramics with ornamental and other motifs (for example, Chinese vessels of the Neolithic era, 5-3 millennia BC; ceramics from Susa, 4th millennium BC; Tripillian ceramics, end of the 3rd millennium BC).

The most ancient eastern civilizations in the development of arts and crafts have reached the same high level as in the field of architecture and sculpture (artistic processing of stone, metal, wood, jewelry, ivory carving, etc.). Jewelers of Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia possessed various subtle techniques of processing precious metals. Ancient Eastern art gave unsurpassed examples of polychrome glazed ceramics, in Egypt products were made from earthenware (based on silica) - architectural details, sculpture, necklaces, bowls and goblets. The Egyptians (along with the Phoenicians) also made glass objects (about the 3rd millennium BC); the flourishing of glass workshops, like other crafts, falls on the New Kingdom (vessels of various forms made of blue or polychrome glass, etc.). Egyptian furniture was made from local ebony (black) wood and imported species (cedar, cypress), decorated with inserts of blue and black faience, covered with gold leaf and inlaid with ivory and painting (some of its forms later strongly influenced the European Empire style). In many regions of China, thin-walled vessels (bowls, vases, jugs and goblets) have been discovered, distinguished by their stylistic originality, a variety of shapes and bizarre zoomorphic images. In India, the highly developed urban civilization of the Bronze Age left behind expressive household items, painted pottery, and textiles discovered during excavations at Mohenjo Daro and Harappa. In Western Iran, in Luristan, a culture represented by the Luristan bronzes developed.

The peculiarity of the decorative and applied art of the Aegean world (see Aegean culture) influenced the art of other countries (New Kingdom Egypt, the Middle East) - jewelry, chased cups and bowls, rhytons. The leading type of artistic craft is ceramics (polychrome with a stylized pattern, plant motifs, with images of sea animals and fish). Ancient Greek ceramics is one of the highest achievements in the history of arts and crafts - first of all, red and black-figured vessels covered with varnish, where the form is organically connected with the plot painting and ornamentation, has a clear tectonics, richness of rhythm of lines and proportions (see Vase painting). Greek pottery and jewelery were exported to many countries around the world, which led to an extensive expansion of Greek artistic traditions. In the decorative and applied arts of the nomadic tribes of Asia and Europe, the Thracians, Celts, and some Finno-Ugric tribes, various forms of animal style have developed; in the middle of the 1st millennium AD, its peculiar form appears among the Germans, the traditions of the animal style were preserved in medieval art.

The Etruscans, being under strong Greek influence, were able to create an equally distinctive culture with their "bukchero" ceramics, painted terracotta, and jewelry art. Their craving for the demonstrative luxury embodied in objects of decorative and applied art was passed on to their successors - the ancient Romans. They borrowed from the Etruscans relief ceramics, decoration of fabrics, from the Greeks - forms and ornament. In Roman decor, there is a lot of excessive, devoid of Greek taste: lush garlands, bucrania, griffins, winged cupids. In the era of the empire, vases made of semi-precious stones (agate, sardonyx, porphyry) came into fashion. The highest achievement of Roman arts and crafts was the invention of the glass blowing technique (1st century BC), the production of transparent, mosaic, engraved, two-layer, imitating a cameo, and gilded glass. Among the metal products are silver vessels (for example, a treasure from Hildesheim), bronze lamps (found during excavations of the city of Pompeii).

The stability of traditions distinguishes the Far Eastern and Indian cultures in general, where characteristic types and forms of decorative and applied arts (ceramics and varnishes in Japan, wood, metal and textile products in India, batik in Indonesia) have been preserved in the medieval era. China is characterized by stable images and traditions of stone-cutting, pottery and jewelry, a variety of materials: silk, paper, bronze, jade, ceramics (first of all, the invention of porcelain), etc.

In ancient (pre-Columbian) America, there were several civilizations (Olmecs, Totonacs, Mayans, Aztecs, Zapotecs, Incas, Chimu, Mochica, etc.) that had a high material culture. The main crafts were pottery, artistic stone processing, including semi-precious rocks, using the original technique of turquoise mosaic on wood, textiles, and jewelry. Ceramics belongs to the best achievements of ancient American art, unlike others who did not know the potter's wheel (Zapotec burial urns, Toltec vases, Mixtec polychrome vases, vessels with engraved Maya designs, etc.).

A characteristic feature of medieval art in the countries of the Middle East, North Africa (Maghreb) and regions of Europe inhabited by Arabs is the craving for colorfulness, for self-valuable decor, geometric ornament (with plant motifs stylized to abstraction, see Arabesque); in the decorative and applied arts of Iran, the pictorial tradition was also preserved. The main types of decorative and applied arts in Muslim countries were ceramics, weaving, the production of weapons and luxury goods. Pottery (mostly ornamental, covered with a chandelier or polychrome painting on a white and colored background) was produced in Iraq (Samarra), Iran (Susa, Ray), medieval Egypt (Fustat), Syria (Raqqa), Central Asia (Samarkand, Bukhara). Spanish-Moorish pottery (Valencian faience) had a great influence on European decorative and applied art of the 15-16th century. Blue-white Chinese porcelain influenced the ceramics of the Golden Horde, Iran and others. In the 16th century, Turkish polychrome faience from Iznik flourished. The Muslim culture also left many samples of art glass, metal (decorated with engraving, embossing, enamel), and weapons. The Islamic world has traditionally used carpets rather than furniture; they were produced in many countries (in the Caucasus, India, Egypt, Turkey, Morocco, Spain, Central Asia); the leading place in carpet weaving belongs to Iran. In Egypt, they produced multicolored woolen tapestry fabrics, linen fabrics, printed heels; in Syria, in Spain during the Cordoba Caliphate and Arab masters in Sicily - silk, brocade; in Turkey (in Bursa) - velvet; in Iran (in Baghdad) - silk draperies; in Damascus - the so-called damask fabrics.

Byzantium became the heir to many of the artistic crafts of antiquity: glass making, the art of mosaics, bone carving, etc., and also masterfully mastered new ones - the technique of cloisonné enamel, etc. Here, cult objects and (under the influence of Eastern cultures) luxury goods became widespread; accordingly, the style of Byzantine arts and crafts was refined, decorative and lush at the same time. The influence of this culture extended to the states of Europe (including Ancient Russia), as well as the Transcaucasus and the Middle East (in Russia, reminiscences of this influence persisted until the Russian-Byzantine style of the 19th century).

In Europe, new forms of decorative and applied art took shape in the era of the "Carolingian Renaissance" under the influence of Byzantium and the countries of the Arab world. In the culture of the Romanesque era, monasteries and city guild corporations play an important role: they practiced stone and wood carving, the manufacture of metal products, forged doors and household utensils. In Italy, where the traditions of late antiquity continued to be preserved, bone and stone carving, the art of mosaics and glyptics, and jewelry were developed; in all these areas the craftsmen have achieved the highest perfection. Gothic inherited many of the typical crafts of that era; the peculiarities of the Gothic style were clearly manifested in products made of ivory and silver, in enamels, trellises and furniture [including wedding chests (in Italy - cassone, decorated with carvings and paintings)].

In Ancient Russia, special achievements belonged to the art of jewelry, wood and stone carving. The typical types of Russian furniture were caskets, tower tables, cupboards, icon cases, chests, and tables. The authors of the pictorial compositions in the form of a "grass pattern" were icon painters - "banners", they also painted chests, tables, boards for gingerbread gingerbread, chess, gilded rattlers, etc .; the decorative "rez" of the 17th century was called "fryazhski grasses". Utensils, dishes, tiles, religious objects were produced in the workshops of Kiev, Novgorod, Ryazan, Moscow (Patriarch's workshops, the Silver Chamber, from the 2nd half of the 17th century - the Armory Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin), Yaroslavl, Kostroma, also in Kirillo-Belozersky, Spaso -Prilutsky, Sergiev Posad monasteries. From the second half of the 17th century, the rapid development of folk crafts began in Russian decorative and applied art (tile production, wood carving and painting, lace weaving and weaving, silverwork and pottery).

During the Renaissance, artistic craft acquired a fundamentally authorial and predominantly secular character. New types of arts and crafts appear, genres and techniques forgotten since ancient times are revived. The most significant changes are taking place in the production of furniture (wardrobes with a folding front board, a chest-bench with a back and armrests, etc.); the decor uses a classic order and a characteristic ornament - grotesques. Silk weaving of Genoa, Florence and Milan, Venetian glass, Italian majolica, glyptics, jewelry art (B. Cellini), artistic metal processing ["lobed style" in Dutch and German silver (the Jamnitzer family)], enamels, glass and French ceramics (made by Saint-Porcher; master B. Palissy).

The decorative and applied art of the Baroque era is characterized by a special splendor and dynamics of compositions, an organic connection between all elements and details (dishes and furniture), preference is given to voluminous, large forms. In the production of furniture (wardrobes, cabinets, dressers, cupboards, etc.), polished wood, gilded bronze fittings and Florentine mosaics, inlay (applied bronze, marquetry using ebony, metal, mother-of-pearl, tortoiseshell, etc.) were used. - in the products of the workshop of A. Sh. Buhl). The trellis manufactories in Europe were influenced by the Flemish carpet art (Brussels manufactories); Genoa and Venice were famous for woolen fabrics and printed velvet. Delft faience arose in imitation of the Chinese. In France, the production of soft porcelain, faience (Rouen, Moustier) and ceramics (Nevers), textiles (manufactures in Lyon), the production of mirrors, tapestries are developing.

In the Rococo era (18th century), fragile and sophisticated asymmetric lines predominate in the shapes and decorations of objects. In England, they produce silver dishes (P. Lamery), candelabra, etc. In Germany, lush rocaille forms (IM Dinglinger) are found among metal products. New forms of furniture are emerging - bureaus (bureau-desk, bureau-board and bureau-cylinder), various types of tables, a soft, upholstered bergere armchair with a closed back, a dressing table of 2 parts; painting panels, marquetry, inlay are used for decoration. New types of fabrics appear (moire and chenille). In England, T. Chippendale produced Rococo furniture (chairs, tables and bookcases) using Gothic and Chinoiserie motifs. At the beginning of the 18th century, the first European porcelain manufactory (sculptor I. Kendler) was opened in Meissen (Saxony). The chinoiserie style penetrates both European porcelain (Meissen, Chantilly, Chelsea, Derby, etc.) and Russian (Imperial Porcelain Factory near St. Petersburg), as well as textiles, glass and furniture ((French varnishes by the Martin brothers). In the 1670s, a new composition of lead glass (the so-called English crystal) appeared in England; the technique of its production was widespread in the Czech Republic, Germany, and France.

The decorative and applied arts of the classicism era of the second half of the 18th century, and later also the Empire style, were influenced by archaeological excavations in the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii (see Pompeian style). The style created by the Adam brothers (England), which affirmed the unity of external decor and interior decoration, breathed new life into decorative and applied art, in particular, into furniture (works by J. Hepluyt, T. Sheraton, T. Hope, brothers Jacob, J. A Rizinera), plastic ornaments (French gilded bronze by P.F. Thomir), artistic silver (cups and dishes by P. Storr), carpets and fabrics, jewelry. The glass decanters of the Cork Glass Company, baccarat vases, crystal chandeliers-cascades distinguish simplicity and clarity. In porcelain, by the end of the 18th century, Meissen ceded the status of the main European manufacturer of porcelain to French Sevres porcelain, outstanding samples began to be created in factories in Vienna, St. Petersburg and Berlin. The Etruria factory of J. Wedgwood appeared in England, producing ceramics in imitation of antique cameos and vases. In Russia, many prominent architects were engaged in the creation of works of decorative and applied art (A. N. Voronikhin and K. I. Rossi designed furniture and vases, M. F. Kazakov and N. A. Lvov - chandeliers).

In the Biedermeier era, works of arts and crafts reflected the desire for a comfortable life, which led to the emergence of comfortable simple furniture of rounded unsophisticated forms from local varieties of wood (walnut, cherry, birch), elegant faceted glass jugs and glasses with elegant paintings (works by A. Kotgasser and etc.). The period of eclecticism (mid-19th century) manifested itself in the stylistic diversity of historical styles used, as well as in the unification of approaches and artistic techniques. The neo-rococo was inspired by the decor of 18th century art; in Russia, it manifested itself in the porcelain wares of the A.G. Popov factory with its polychrome flower painting on a colored background. The revival of the Gothic (neo-Gothic) was due to the desire of artists to introduce a romantic-sublime style into decorative and applied art and only indirectly reproduced truly Gothic motives; elements of ornament rather than forms of Gothic art were borrowed (Bohemian glass by D. Beeman, works in porcelain and glass for the palace of Nicholas I "Cottage" in Peterhof). The Victorian style in England was reflected in the creation of heavy furniture and the widespread distribution of its "small forms" (whatnots, umbrella holders, gambling tables, etc.). Unglazed porcelain imitating marble has become popular again. New types and techniques have appeared in glass (primarily in Bohemian glass) - multilayer colored glass "flash", opaque cameo and black (hyalite) glass, imitating lithiali gemstones. From the mid-1840s in France, at the glass factories of Baccarat, Saint-Louis and Clichy, and later in England, Bohemia and the United States, a new direction appeared (the creation of millefiore paperweights, etc.). The fusion of elements of various styles determined the development of furniture and the emergence of new industrial technologies and materials: forms made of glued and bent wood (M. Tonet), papier-mâché, carved wood and cast iron.

A protest against eclecticism, initiated in Britain by the Arts and Crafts Society, contributed to the formation of the Art Nouveau style in the late 19th century; he blurred the lines between decorative, applied and visual arts and took different forms in many countries. Art Nouveau decor is most often likened to ornamental motives of natural forms; curved lines, wavy contours, asymmetric designs were widely used (furniture by V. Orta, L. Majorelle, E. Guimard, artistic multilayer colored glass with floral and landscape motifs by E. Galle, O. Daum, L. Tiffany, jewelry by R. Lalique ). On the other hand, the artists of the Vienna Secession, like the Scotsman C.R. Mackintosh, used symmetry and restrained rectilinear forms. The works of J. Hoffmann, often performed jointly with G. Klimt (furniture, glass, metal, jewelry), are distinguished by elegance and sophistication. In European porcelain production, the underglaze painting of the Copenhagen Royal Manufactory took a leading place. In Russian Art Nouveau, in its national-romantic branch, the neo-Russian style manifested itself - especially in the activities of the Abramtsev art circle (works of V.M. Vasnetsov, M.A.Vrubel, E.D. Polenova), Talashkino workshop of Princess M.K. workshops of the Stroganov School.

The newest history of arts and crafts begins not only with the revival of handicraft (W. Morris and others), but also with the emergence at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries throughout Europe and the United States of a new type of creative activity - design and its further active development in 1920s (Bauhaus, Vkhutemas). Art Deco design became the basis for almost all home interiors that cultivated discreet luxury and comfort (geometric shapes, stylized and simplified ornament, exotic veneered furniture of rectilinear shapes, functional tableware and flower vases).

Russian art after 1917 developed on a new ideological and aesthetic basis.

Artists tried to convey the spirit of the era (the so-called agitational porcelain) by means of art, to create a complex rational environment for broad strata of the population. Since the late 1950s, in Soviet decorative and applied art, along with the active development of the artistic industry (porcelain factories of Leningrad, Verbilok, Dulevo porcelain factory, Konakovsky faience factory, Leningrad glass factory, Gusevsky crystal factory, etc.) and folk crafts (Gzhel ceramics , Zhostovo painting, Skopinskaya ceramics, Dymkovo toys, etc.

The development of arts and crafts in the 20th century is due to the coexistence and interpenetration of traditional and avant-garde principles. The subtle expressive possibilities of new materials, imitation and creative citation have acquired great importance. In the era of postmodernism, a special attitude appears to a decorative artifact as an autonomous entity that is demonstratively "not interested" in serving a person, alienated from him. As a result, this led to a “crisis of self-identification” of arts and crafts, caused by the emergence of competition from related art forms (primarily design). However, this crisis, paradoxically, opens up new perspectives for decorative and applied art in terms of expanding and revising its own figurative specificity, mastering new genres and materials (ceramoplastics, fiberglass, textile plastics, mini-tapestries, mosaics in wooden frames, etc.).

Lit .: Molinier E. Histoire générale des arts appliqués à industrie. R., 1896-1911. Vol. 1-5; Arkin D. The art of everyday things. Essays on the latest art industry. M., 1932; Fontanes J, de. Histoire des métiers d'art. R., 1950; Baerwald M., Mahoney T. The story of jewelry. L .; N. Y. 1960; Kagan M. About applied art. Some questions of theory. L., 1961; Russian decorative art / Edited by A. I. Leonov. M., 1962. T. 1-3; Saltykov A.B. works. M., 1962; Barsali I. B. European enamels. L., 1964; Kenyon G. H. The glass industry of the Weald. Leicester, 1967; Cooper E. A history of pottery. L., 1972; Davis F. Continental glass: from Roman to modern times. L., 1972; Moran A. de. History of arts and crafts. M., 1982; Osborne N. The Oxford companion to the decorative arts. Oxf. 1985; Boucher F. A history of costume in the West. L., 1987; Nekrasova M.A.Problem of the ensemble in decorative art // Art of the ensemble. Artistic subject. Interior. Architecture. Wednesday. M., 1988; Illustrated encyclopedia of Antiques. L., 1994; Makarov K.A. From creative heritage. M., 1998; Materials and techniques in the decorative arts: an illustrated dictionary / Ed. by L. Trench. L., 2000.

T.L. Astrakhantseva.