6.1. Temperament The concept of temperament. Human behavior depends not only on social conditions, but also on the characteristics of its natural organization. Among the individual characteristics that characterize human behavior, his activities and communication, a special place

The concept of temperament. Physiological and psychological theories of temperament. The concept of individual style of activity (V.S. Merlin, E.A. Klimov).

1. The concept of temperament.

The term "temperament" was proposed in antiquity (Ancient Roman physician Galen, 2nd century AD). In translation - proportionality or proper relationship of parts. There is no clear definition of temperament. In general terms, temperament is understood as the dynamic characteristics of mental activity (Gippenreiter). Temperament (Nebylitsyn) is a characteristic of an individual from the dynamic characteristics of his mental activity, i.e. tempo, speed, rhythm, intensity, the mental processes and states that make up this activity. Temperament is a manifestation of physiological processes. It is studied more often in a diagnostic approach. There are 3 areas of manifestation of temperament: general activity, characteristics of the motor sphere and properties of emotionality.

General activity is determined by the intensity and volume of human interaction with the environment – ​​physical and social. According to this parameter, a person can be inert, passive, calm, proactive, active, impetuous.

Manifestations of temperament in the motor sphere can be considered as particular expressions of general activity. These include pace, speed, rhythm and total number of movements.

When they talk about emotionality as a manifestation of temperament, they mean impressionability, sensitivity, impulsiveness, etc.

2. Physiological theories of temperament

2.1. Humoral theories.

Temperament is determined by the relationship between the four fluids circulating in the body - bile, blood, black bile and lymph. Temperament was determined by the predominant liquid ratio: sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic, melancholic.

2.1.1. Galen and Hippocrates

Ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (5th century BC): health is determined by the correct ratio of 4 fluids (juices) in the body: blood is produced by the heart, mucus is produced by the brain, bile is produced by the liver, black bile is produced by the pancreas. The predominance of some kind of vital juice is a disease. Blood - “sangva”, mucus - “phlegm”, bile - “chole”, black bile - “melanchole” (4 types).

Galen (based on the work of Hippocrates) noted that liquids influence our behavior. If some liquid is in excess, a person behaves according to the organ that produces it (sanguine - excess blood - very energetic people; phlegmatic - excess mucus - slow reactions, tendency to think; choleric - bile - a quick-tempered, quarrelsome person; melancholic - excess black bile).

Thus, we can distinguish humoral concepts, theories of temperament (based on the work of Galen and Hippocrates). Humoral – relating to the liquid internal media of the body.

2.1.2. I. Kant and Lesgaft

Kant logically proved that precisely these types of people exist and should exist. Lesgaft describes the properties of the circulatory system (pressure, thickness and elasticity of the walls of blood vessels, lumen diameter, etc.).

Immanuel Kant (1798) correlated the type of temperament with the characteristics of blood: light-blooded, or sanguine; heavy-blooded, or melancholic; warm-blooded, or choleric; cold-blooded or phlegmatic.

I. Kant - divided human temperament into:

1. temperaments of feeling (sanguine, melancholic);

2. temperaments of activity (choleric, phlegmatic).

2.2. Constitutional (morphological) theories.

We can also highlight constitutional theories of temperament, according to which there is a connection between physique and temperament properties. For example, the theories of Kretschmer and Sheldon. Kretschmer identified the main constitutional body types and defined temperament through these types. Sheldon - 3 somatotypes - endomorphic, mesomorphic and ectomorphic. For both: fatal somatic conditioning of various mental personality traits.

Theories I and II consider the root cause of temperament to be systems of the body that do not have the necessary properties for this.

2.2.1. Kretschmer

Kretschmer based his theory on the observations of a doctor. Established a connection between the disease, body type and temperament type. “The concept of constitution covers all hereditary or congenital anatomical, physiological and mental properties of an individual.”

Main idea: People with a certain type of build have certain mental characteristics and predispositions corresponding to mental illness. He discovers a relationship between certain body features and disease.

Studying specifically the structure of a person, he distinguishes four types:

1) Leptosomatic (Greek: fragile body): fragile physique, tall stature, flat chest, long face, thin nose.

2) Picnic (fat): obesity, medium or small stature, large belly, round head.

3) Athletic (wrestling, grappling): strong build, tall or average height, convex facial bone.

4) Dysplastic (poorly formed): shapeless or with deviations.

Having identified body types, he distributed them according to their connection with the disease. The greatest predisposition to diseases was found in leptosomatics and picnics.

Schizophrenics – more leptosomatic;

Cyclophrenics – more picnics;

Athletic people are less likely to suffer from epilepsy;

A schizoid is short, asthenic, and the traits and temperament are characteristic of phlegmatic and melancholic people.

A schizothymic person is healthy, but has asthenic traits, the temperament of a schizoid.

Cycloid – pyknic physique, patients – manic-depressive psychosis.

Cyclothymic – healthy, with a picnic build.

Epiliptoid - athletic build, epileptic temperament, calm, unimpressive, but sometimes explosive.

Ixothymic (viscosity) – healthy, athletic, epileptoid temperament.

2.2.2. Sheldon

Sheldon identified three body types based on genetics.

exodermis

mesoderm (bones...)

endoderm (internal organs)

Exomorphic is a body type that corresponds to Kretschmer’s asthenic. The body is fragile, thin, the chest is flattened, the limbs are long and thin, the nervous system is poorly protected.

Mesomorphic type - well-developed muscular system, slender body, great physical strength, corresponds to a Kretschmer athlete.

The endomorphic type is excess adipose tissue, the exact opposite of the exomorphic type.

After years of observing healthy people, Sheldon noticed certain temperament types, including extroverts and introverts.

Temperament type Body type

Cerebratonic Exomorphic

Somatotonic (predominance of the body) Mesomorphic

Viscerotonic Endomorphic

Viscerotonic - relaxation in movements and posture, love of comfort, slow reactions, addiction to food, pronounced socialization of food needs, love of company, feasts, a characteristic tendency to social work - sociophilia. They are characterized by friendliness, relative emotional evenness, tolerant, sleep well, no explosive emotions. In difficult situations they need people. Family oriented.

Somatotonic – confident in movements and posture, energetic, need for movement, predominant need for dominance, tendency to take risks. Decisive manners, courage, strong aggressiveness, psychological insensitivity, lack of compassion. Characterized by claustrophobia. Difficulty muffled voice, endurance of pain, noisy behavior, self-confidence, aggressiveness, in grief the need for action.

Cerebrotonic – retardation in movement, stiffness in posture, high reaction speed. Tendency to solitude, reasoning. Hiddenness in the manifestation of feelings, a certain inhibition in emotions. Social phobia (fear of social contacts), inhibition of communication, agoraphobia (fear of open space). Unpredictability of behavior, extreme sensitivity to pain, poor sleep, chronic fatigue. Alcohol resistant. In grief there is a need for solitude.

2.3. Neurodynamic (neurophysiological) theories.

Explanation of temperament through the characteristics of the central nervous system.

2.3.1. I.P. Pavlov

I.P. Pavlov introduced the concept of a type of higher nervous activity. It is determined by the relationship between the properties of the nervous system. I.P. Pavlov, studying the peculiarities of the development of conditioned reflexes in dogs, drew attention to individual differences in their behavior and in the course of conditioned reflex activity. These differences were manifested in such aspects of behavior as the speed and accuracy of the formation of conditioned reflexes, as well as in the characteristics of their attenuation. This circumstance made it possible to put forward the hypothesis that these differences cannot be explained only by the variety of experimental situations and that they are based on some fundamental properties of nervous processes. Pavlov identified three properties of nervous processes:

1. Nervous processes are powerful. Strength is determined by the performance of the nerve cell. The strength of nervous processes (strength - weakness) is the ability of the nervous system to withstand the effects of prolonged or frequently repeated exposure to an excitatory or inhibitory type of stimulus.

2. Nervous processes have the property of balance. Balance (balance - imbalance) - the ability to transition from excitation to inhibition in a critical situation.

3. Nervous processes have mobility. They can be mobile or inert. Mobility (mobility - inertia) - the speed of transition from excitation to inhibition, and vice versa.

Based on these properties, Pavlov described the types of nervous processes (types of VND).

strong weak

balanced unbalanced

mobile inert

Sanguine – strong, balanced, agile. Great strength of nervous processes, their balance and significant mobility, so he quickly and easily adapts to changed conditions. High resistance to difficulties in life (Strong).

Phlegmatic – strong, balanced, inert. NS is strong, balanced, sedentary. Reacts calmly, slowly, and is not prone to change. But it resists well (Inert).

Choleric – strong unbalanced. Strong nervous system, but excitation prevails over inhibition. Great vital energy (Rampant).

Melancholic is a weak type. Weak both excitation and inhibition. Passive, inhibited. Strong stimuli are sources of behavioral disturbances (Weak).

2.3.2. B.M. Teplov and V.D. Nebylitsin

Objections to Pavlov:

1) Pavlov recognized that, in principle, 4 types of GNI are possible (for example, weak-uranium-balanced-mobile, etc.). This is theoretically possible, but in practice there are 4 types. In fact, it turned out that there are more than four of them (Teplov believes that Pavlov was influenced by the Hippocratic classification).

2) According to Pavlov, the best type is sanguine. All others do not provide biological adaptation. Teplov: one cannot talk about adaptability and non-adaptation of temperament. If they exist, then this has biological expediency.

3) Teplov: the properties described by Pavlov are not so simple. In the weak, the process of increasing the reaction goes faster (the sensitive type responds better to weak stimuli). The property of strength and weakness is endurance. Sensitive ones are not hardy, strong ones are hardy.

4) We discovered partiality of the properties of the NS. There are no general properties of NNs as such. The type of GNI depends on the analyzers (for example, a person can be strong in relation to the visual analyzer and weak in relation to the auditory analyzer).

5) The type of GNI does not necessarily correlate with temperament. Mismatch between genotype and phenotype. Pavlov defined the genotype as the innate type of the nervous system, the phenotype as the warehouse of higher nervous activity. Pavlov associated the genotype with the concept of temperament, and the phenotype with the concept of character. Those. Pavlov gave a purely physiological interpretation of temperament. He called the psychological aspects of temperament character.

 dynamism - the ease and speed (increase and spread) with which the NS generates excitation and inhibition.

 lability – the speed of the onset and cessation of nervous processes (reaction time, speed of response) – instead of mobility.

Replaces the concept of “type” with “property syndrome” - a set of NS properties that correlate with each other. those. not from above from types, but from below from properties.

The property, the syndrome of strength, becomes central to the formation of 2 groups of properties correlating with it:

1) The strength of the NS correlates with low sensitivity (high thresholds of auditory and sound sensitivity);

2) Weakness of the NS correlates with high sensitivity.

The properties of the NS do not unambiguously predetermine any forms of behavior. But they form the soil on which some forms of behavior are easier to form and others more difficult. Those. there is a more complex connection than Pavlov thought.

Nebylitsyn generalized temperaments without identifying types, but did not single out individual particular properties of the NS. The main characteristics of temperament should be identified as functions of anatomical structures. Temperament components:

1) The general psychological activity of the individual (energy activity - persistence, will or lethargy, inertia) - the activity of the reticular formation, the “energy center” of the body.

2) Motor component (general motor activity - speed, sharpness, rhythm, range of movements).

3) Emotional processes (dynamic characteristics: impressionability, impulsiveness, lability) - activity of the fronto-limbic cortex, parts of the hippocampus, pituitary gland.

Sanguine - high energy activity, varied facial expressions; impressionability, lability (high speed of change of emotional states).

Choleric - high mental activity; sharpness and swiftness of movements; great power of emotions, impulsiveness.

Phlegmatic - low mental activity; difficulty switching when performing actions, slowness, calmness, constancy of feelings and moods.

Melancholic - low level of activity; restraint of movements, quiet speech; depth of feelings with weak external expression.

3. Psychological theories of temperament.

Gradually, the study of temperament moved from defining types to identifying the degree of certain of its properties. The task of studying temperament is not only to describe the types, but also the properties of temperament and to find the relationship between these properties and physiological processes. People began to be divided not according to types of temperament, but according to its individual properties. For example, in K. Jung and G. Eysenck (1960) it is extraversion - introversion, in V.D. Nebylitsyna (1976) – general activity and emotionality. Scientists have not been able to create a unified concept of temperament and its types.

3.1. K.G. Jung

Adherence to a certain style of behavior, a certain set of “functions” is a characteristic property of each person and forms the basis of the typology. Thus, Jung introduced the concept of “functional” or “psychological type.” Jung described unequivocally only three pairs of basic opposing factors:

 extraversion - introversion (E - I)

 sanity - intuition (S - N.),

 logic - feeling (T - F), and options for their combination.

Extroverts draw energy from communicating with people, always ready to continue communication or maintain a conversation, while an introvert, after a certain period of intense communication with others, needs to retire, process the information received and, in the figurative expression of the author of the technique, “recharge the batteries.” In the general US population there are about 75 out of 100 extroverts, 25 out of introverts.

People belonging to the N-category rely on their inner voice, their own intuition when making decisions, regardless of how others act in similar situations. For S-people, on the contrary, the experience of others and common sense are the criteria for making decisions. Fantasy is alien to them; they prefer “a bird in the hand to a pie in the sky.” It should be noted that such a brief description does not exhaust the psychological content of this scale. However, the special significance of the scale should be clear simply because disagreements between representatives of the S and N camps can be especially irreconcilable and can serve as the basis for serious social and personal problems. S-people in the USA are 75%, N - 25%.

People who prefer to rely on the T-characteristic in processing information and making decisions consider a logical, objective approach, which has its own clear laws and rules, to be justified. F-people are characterized by subjectivity and humanity; they are guided by ethical categories to a greater extent than by logical ones. The T - F scale is the only one in which gender differences are noted. Six out of ten men are T-people; among women the ratio is exactly the opposite: 60% consider themselves to be in the F-category.

3.2. G. Eysenck

H.Yu. Eysenck (1916–1997), English psychologist, one of the leaders of the biological direction in psychology, is the creator of the technical factor theory of personality.

Eysenck identified three personality dimensions:

Psychoticism (P),

Extraversion (E),

Neuroticism (N).

The most fascinating aspect of Eysenck's theory is his attempt to establish a neurophysiological basis for each of the three supertraits or personality types. Introversion-extroversion is closely related to cortical activation levels, as shown by electroencephalographic studies. Eysenk (1982) uses the term "activation" to refer to the degree of arousal that ranges from a low range (eg, sleep) to a high range (eg, panic). He believes that introverts are extremely excitable and therefore highly sensitive to incoming stimulation - for this reason they avoid situations that affect them too much. Conversely, extroverts are not sufficiently excitable and therefore insensitive to incoming stimulation; accordingly, they are constantly on the lookout for situations that might arouse them.

Eysenck suggests that individual differences in stability-neuroticism reflect the strength of the autonomic nervous system's response to stimuli. In particular, he links this aspect to the limbic system, which influences motivation and emotional behavior. People with high levels of neuroticism tend to respond to painful, unfamiliar, anxiety-inducing, and other stimuli more quickly than more stable individuals. Such individuals also exhibit longer-lasting reactions that continue even after the disappearance of stimuli than individuals with a high level of stability.

As for studies devoted to identifying the basis of psychotism, they are in the search stage. However, as a working hypothesis, Eysenck links this aspect with the system that produces androgens (chemical substances produced by the endocrine glands, which, when released into the blood, regulate the development and maintenance of male sexual characteristics). However, too little empirical research has been conducted in this area to confirm Eysenck's hypothesis about the relationship between sex hormones and psychoticism.

Eysenck used a variety of methods to collect data about people: self-observation, expert assessments, analysis of biographical information, physical and physiological parameters, as well as objective psychological tests. The obtained data were subjected to factor analysis to determine the personality structure. In his early research, Eysenck identified two main types (Eysenk, 1947, 1952), which he called introversion-extraversion and neuroticism-stability (sometimes called instability-stability). These two dimensions of personality are orthogonal, meaning they are statistically independent of each other. Accordingly, people can be divided into four groups, each of which represents some combination of a high or low score in the range of one type, together with a high or low score in the other type range. As shown in table. 6-4, each type is associated with characteristics whose names resemble descriptions of personality traits. In considering the nature of these four groups, two points must be kept in mind. First, both type ranges are normally distributed, continuous, and thus allow for a wide range of individual differences. Second, the descriptions of the traits associated with each type represent extreme cases. Most people tend to be closer to the middle point - in both ranges of types - and therefore end up with characteristics that are not as extreme as those in the table. 6-4.

Table 6-4

Four categories of people described by Eysenck based on the severity of two independent parameters Each category, including its constituent traits, is the result of a combination of high and low levels of introversion and extraversion with high or low levels of stability and neuroticism.

3.3. Formal dynamic theory V.M. Rusalova

V.M. Mermaid is a modern concept of temperament. He developed the “Formal-Dynamic Properties of Personality Questionnaire (OFDSI).” Rusalov identifies 3 areas of manifestation of temperament: psychomotor, intellectual and communicative. In each sphere there are 4 parameters, properties of temperament: 1) ergicity (strength, endurance, activity); 2) plasticity (softness, smooth transition from one operation to another); 3) speed of operations, actions; 4) emotionality (the emotional background that accompanies the activity).

According to Rusalov, it is necessary to take into account not only the meaning of one or another individual formal-dynamic property, but also indices and temperamental types that reflect different degrees of integration of the formal-dynamic properties of individuality. Based on the content of correlation and factor connections between the OFDSI scales, V.M. Rusalov proposes to identify 6 most important indices of formal dynamic properties of a person: index of psychomotor activity; intellectual activity index; communication activity index; general activity index; general emotionality index; general adaptability index.

To calculate the differential type of temperament in a certain area of ​​behavior, you need to plot the value of the activity index in this area on the ordinate axis, and the value of the corresponding emotional scale on the abscissa axis.

Thus, in each sphere, 9 differential types of formal-dynamic properties can be distinguished: choleric, phlegmatic, sanguine, melancholic, mixed low-emotional, mixed high-emotional, mixed low-active, mixed high-active and uncertain.

Calculations of the general type of temperament are carried out similarly to the calculation of the differential type. To do this, you need to plot the value of the general activity index on the ordinate axis, and the value of the general emotionality index on the abscissa axis. The type names are the same as for differential types.

4. The concept of individual style of activity.

One of the modern trends in the scientific study of temperament is represented by the Perm School (Perm Pedagogical Institute). The founder of this school was V.S. Merlin. He viewed temperament as a special psychodynamic level in the structure of integral individuality. Temperament, according to Merlin, cannot be studied only as a genotypic phenomenon. It is a means that can be controlled and can be compensated up to certain limits. The concept of V.S. Merlin is considered one of the psychological theories of temperament. Temperament represents a separate level in the general system of integral individuality. The latter consists of the following levels: biochemical, somatic, neurodynamic, psychodynamic (temperament itself), the level of personality traits, the level of social roles.

The structure of temperament differs:

o extraversion as the dependence of mental activity on the existing objective situation;

o psychodynamic anxiety as a predisposition to an avoidance reaction in anticipation of a threatening situation;

o reactivity as the intensity of the reaction in response to incoming stimulation;

o impulsiveness as the speed with which emotion becomes a motivating force of action;

o emotional stability as the ability to control emotions;

o emotional excitability as the intensity of emotional experiences;

o activity as purposeful activity;

o rigidity as the inability to adjust the program of activities in accordance with the requirements of the situation.

V.S. Merlin introduces the concept of the zone of uncertainty and individual style of activity. The zone of uncertainty assumes that a person consciously or unconsciously makes a decision about choosing a method of activity based on 1) an assessment of individual properties and one’s own capabilities, 2) determining the discrepancy between existing methods of activity and objective tasks, 3) taking into account varying degrees of motivation to action. An individual style of activity is understood as a unique system of psychological means to which a person consciously or spontaneously resorts in order to best balance his (typologically conditioned) individuality with the objective conditions of activity.

The subject takes an active part in the formation of an individual style of activity.

60s Klimov introduces the concept of an individual style of professional activity of a person. An individual style of activity is a set of methods for mastering and implementing a certain professional activity, achieved under optimal conditions and high motivation.

The structure of an individual stimulus can be illustrated using radiating concentric circles. Consists of a nucleus... it is difficult for a true differential psychophysiologist to change his approach... here again there will be a nucleus.

About 10 years ago, the second word made me smile. What is the shell of the core is called an extension.

What exactly do you mean? The core is the type of nervous system, which, according to Pavlov, is a certain temperament. The extension is determined by the nature of the activity that the subject is mastering. The extension is determined by the nature of the activity. There are, as it were, new trends that are already familiar to us from Thermal’s concept of ability.

Core and extension. There are two options for the relationship between them - classic and modern. The classic one is clearer. Such - if a person by temperament, for example, has high non-specific activity (mobility, according to Pavlov)... A heroine of industrial psychology appears - a seamstress-machine operator. Where is a person with such a core?.. (and librarians).

And the second version of the relationship arises.

These studies also belong to the Teplov school, and one of them: people with strong and weak types of nervous systems are given one task that must be completed within 40 minutes. Task: count in your head and write down the result. They say: what will the actual result be... when there is actually no quantitative result...

By all expectations, of course, the strong should win. The result is this: no one won in terms of overall productivity. Slightly higher in overall productivity are people with a weak type of nervous system. By half an hour, 35 minutes, productivity sharply decreased. But in general, productivity is higher than that of people with a strong type of nervous system.

Conclusion: there is also the opposite effect. Not like the influence of an extension on the core... of the activity that a person masters, on his initial properties of the nervous system. This influence is compensation, compensatory influence, i.e. an influence that seems to remove, compensate, transform, change, etc. features of the kernel.

Now let us note by the way... words in psychological research are far from random. How Klimov used [the concept] style (I don’t know if he knew Adler by that time). “Style” – from Klimov, “life style” – from Adler. And like Adler’s, life style is a form of transformation of natural data (a form of compensation for natural... defects (?)).

Concept of character. Structure and formation of character. Character and temperament. The concept of psychopathy and character accentuation.

1. Concept of character

Character in the narrow sense of the word is defined as a set of stable properties of an individual, which express the ways of his behavior and methods of emotional response (Gippenreiter).

Character is an old term. “Seal” translated from Greek. Character is associated with the processes of the will. Something with which a person can control his behavior. Character is the formal dynamic features of human behavior. Studied through observation. Aristotle's student, Theophastus, described 30 character types. The technique he used was to observe a person’s behavior in various situations and try to isolate something stable, a complex of behavioral characteristics (the character of a coward, a scoundrel, a leader, a hero).

Structural definition (diagnostic approach): character is a lifetime manifestation of temperament in a certain social environment. This is a stable system of relationships. Everyone has character, as a derivative of temperament (personality in the broad sense of the word).

Functional definition (personal approach): character is a form of behavior necessary to maintain the existing structure of motives. The basis is emerging personal problems. Character traits are possible ways to solve problems.

Vygotsky: Character- a social stamp of personality, hardened, crystallized typical behavior of an individual in the struggle for a social position. It is a deposit of the main line, the unconscious life plan, the single life direction of all psychological acts and functions.

Character is not a natural formation; it is formed in the process of a person’s life, in the state of a person’s involvement in public social relations. Character is a set of stable modes of behavior formed during a person’s life that correspond to the direction of his personality.

2. Structure and formation of character.

2.1. Character structure.

Determined by a person’s attitude, i.e. how a person behaves in relation to: himself; to others; to the point; to objects, things.

Character is a set of stable traits that manifest themselves in all situations.

Into the character structure includes such interconnected essential components that are common to all people.

The structure and content of each person’s character are determined by:

a) the dynamics of the will (how capable a person is of achieving his goals, i.e. is his will weak or strong);

b) the specificity of the manifestation of a person’s emotions and the emotional background that accompanies certain of his actions;

c) intellectual characteristics of a person;

d) the interconnection of all these components.

Character is closely interconnected with the orientation of the individual, which is manifested in the active selective attitude of the individual to the requirements of the real world and, thus, influences human activity.

Another option: The content aspect of character depends on the environment. Each time gives birth to its own types of characters. They exist as cultural phenomena (Turgenev's girl, the new Russian). Such typologies allow us to understand the historical nature of character.

The character structure distinguishes 2 blocks:

1) system of relations, 3 aspects:

a) attitude towards others,

b) attitude towards work,

c) attitude towards oneself,

2) volitional traits that determine the ability and willingness to manage one’s behavior in accordance with the rules (traits that are associated with regulation).

2.2. Character formation.

Character is formed under the influence of social conditions as a result of the activities of the individual. At the same time, character is a manifestation of a holistic personality, therefore it is necessary to imagine its individual development throughout the entire life path.

A person's character is formed from the first days of his life.

A significant role in this is played by those people who have been with him since childhood, that is, his parents.

In the period from 2 - 3 to 9 - 10 years, optimal conditions are created for the formation of positive character traits of the child.

The character traits that determine a child’s attitude towards people are formed at a very early age.

The traits that define business qualities are formed later, in children's games.

During adolescence, strong-willed character traits are formed, and moral and ideological foundations are laid in early adolescence.

A person’s attitude towards society and people plays a decisive role in the formation of character. The character of a person cannot be revealed and understood outside the team, without taking into account his attachments in the form of camaraderie, friendship, and love.

A person’s relationships with other people are decisive in relation to activity, generating increased activity, tension, rationalization or, on the contrary, complacency and lack of initiative. The attitude towards other people and towards activity, in turn, determines the person’s attitude towards his own personality, towards himself. A correct, evaluative attitude towards another person is the main condition for self-esteem.

The attitude towards other people is not only an important part of character, but also forms the basis for the formation of the individual’s consciousness, necessarily including the attitude towards oneself as an actor, which depends primarily on the very form of activity. When an activity changes, not only the subject, methods and operations change this activity, there is at the same time a restructuring of the attitude towards oneself as an actor.

3. Character and temperament.

3.1. 4 points of view.

Character is often compared with temperament, and in some cases these concepts are replaced with each other. In science, among the dominant views on the relationship between character and temperament, four main ones can be distinguished:

1) identification of character and temperament (E Kretschmer, A. Ruzhitsky);

2) contrasting character and temperament, emphasizing the antagonism between them (P. Viktorov, V. Virenius);

3) recognition of temperament as an element of character, its core, an unchangeable part (S.L. Rubinstein, S. Gorodetsky);

4) recognition of temperament as the natural basis of character (L.S. Vygotsky, B.G. Ananyev).

Based on the materialistic understanding of human phenomena, it should be noted that what character and temperament have in common is dependence on the physiological characteristics of a person. The formation of character significantly depends on the properties of temperament, which is more closely related to the properties of the nervous system. In addition, character traits arise when temperament is already sufficiently developed. Character develops on the basis of temperament. Temperament determines such traits in character as balance or difficulty in entering a new situation, mobility or inertness of reaction, etc. However, temperament does not predetermine character. People with the same temperament properties can have completely different characters. Features of temperament can promote or counteract the formation of certain character traits.

The properties of temperament may, to some extent, even come into conflict with character.

In a person with a formed character, temperament ceases to be an independent form of personality manifestation, but becomes its dynamic side, consisting in a certain emotional orientation of character properties, a certain speed of mental processes and personality manifestations, a certain characteristic of expressive movements and actions of the individual. Here it should be noted the influence exerted on the formation of character by a dynamic stereotype, i.e. a system of conditioned reflexes that form in response to a steadily repeating system of stimuli. The formation of dynamic stereotypes in a person in various repeated situations is influenced by his attitude to the situation, as a result of which excitation, inhibition, mobility of nervous processes, and, consequently, the general functional state of the nervous system can change. It is also necessary to note the role in the formation of dynamic stereotypes, as well as the determining role in the formation of dynamic stereotypes of the second signaling system, through which social influences are carried out.

The traits of temperament and character are organically connected and interact with each other in the integral, unified appearance of a person, forming an inseparable alloy - an integral characteristic of his individuality.

3.2. Difference between character and temperament.

Criteria Temperament Character

Level of human analysis Individual Personality

Origin Given from birth Formed during life

Psychological description Set of formal-dynamic characteristics of mental activity Content characteristics associated with the orientation of a person’s personality

4. The concept of psychopathy and accentuation.

4.1. Psychopathy.

Psychopathy is borderline behavior between normality and pathology. 3 criteria of Gannushkin-Kerbikov psychopathy: 1. Totality of character manifestation. He behaves this way everywhere, regardless of the situation. 2. Stability over time. Accented character in adolescence or during a personal crisis. Psychopathy always. 3. Social maladjustment. Character traits prevent a person from adapting normally to life in society.

Psychopathy (from the Greek psyche - soul and pathos - suffering, illness) is an anomaly of human character, usually caused by a congenital inferiority of the nervous system.

The main disorders in psychopathy relate to the emotional-volitional sphere. Psychopaths are primarily characterized by inappropriate emotional experiences, a tendency to develop depressive and obsessive states, etc. Psychopathy can occur in people who suffered encephalitis, head trauma at a young age, and also as a result of improper upbringing.

If there are three signs - psychopathy, if there are two signs - strong accentuation. The following types of psychopathy are distinguished:

sthenic - characterized by increased irritability combined with rapid exhaustion;

excitable - characterized by inappropriate emotional reactions to external stimuli, a tendency to violent outbursts of anger and aggression;

hysterical - this type of P. is characterized by increased emotional mobility, impressionability, suggestibility, and egocentrism;

paranoid - characterized by increased suspicion, mistrust, high self-esteem, and a tendency to overvalued ideas.

Gannushkin: psychopathy.

Group of cycloids (I – II as its poles).

I Constitutionally excited group.

MDP expression. Constantly high spirits, increased activity. Often gets carried away, interested in the world, informal leader, diverse interests. Instability of interests (consequence in life: modest successes). Gambler. Tendency to scam. Accepts life's adversities with ease.

II Constitutional-depressive group.

The main symptom: causeless depression of mood, increased fatigue, painful sensitivity (Pavlov: pure weak type of NS). Situations related to verification cause excessive irritability.

III Labile group.

Instability of the emotional sphere. Emotive-labile type: emotionality. Reactive-labile: mood changes due to external circumstances. Has no long-term attachments, blurred interests, cannot keep promises for a long time. Does not know how to correctly express, formalize and maintain affection, and maintain it in behavior.

IV Group of neurasthenics.

Painful sensitivity to the point of suspiciousness regarding one’s own bodily experiences. He often visits the clinic in several rooms at once. Painful attitude towards physical and mental health.

V Group of psychasthenics.

Excessive indecisiveness. There are no internal means for making decisions. Compensation using external (horoscopes, etc.) means. He even makes his own decisions based on external means (L.N.T.: “Resurrection”, court assessor).

VI Group of paranoids.

Tendency to create extremely valuable ideas. Seems self-oriented, evaluates others and treats them in accordance with his own highly valued statements. Demanding, cruel, vindictive, capricious and irritable. He is a reasoner (a person inclined to justify his beliefs), but his verbal flow is monotonous and not original.

VII Group of epileptoids.

Key signs: the presence of emotional attacks, the presence of viscous emotional states, the presence of moral defects. Is on the verge of fulfilling the norm. A prude, she emphasizes her adherence to norms. Strives for leadership, but rarely achieves it. The position of the leader's closest subordinate, to whom he fawns. Cruel towards the weak. Can be active and persistent. Tends to go to the extreme in everything. He often collects things. Tends to master manual skills, tends to train alone.

VIII Group of hysteroids.

The need to attract attention at any cost. Unexpected, unmotivated actions. Tendency to fantasize: misrepresentation of reality. A person loses consciousness of his motivation and invents grave sins for himself. Pathological liar. The extreme case is a fanatic.

IX Group of unstable.

Inability to act without a model. Lack of established ways of behavior, dependent on others. Compensation: choosing a bright sample.

X Group of constitutionally stupid people.

Intellectual decline. He will be successful if he chooses the average sample. Prude, reasoner. Standard, everyday opinions.

4.2. Accentuation.

Accentuation of character is an exaggerated development of certain character traits to the detriment of others, as a result of which interaction with other people deteriorates. The severity of accentuation can vary - from mild, noticeable only to the immediate environment, to extreme variants, when you have to wonder if there is a disease - psychopathy.

Lichko's typology:

1. Hyperthymic character. Lively, energetic, active, sociable..., as a rule, a good positive emotional attitude. Emotional insensitivity (Y.B.).

2. Hysterical (demonstrative) - the main thing is to be in the center of attention, characteristic of actors and politicians.

3. Epileptoid - also active, but the activity is aimed at domination over others, for him the main thing is power. Children discover their type early, they play only with younger ones. Dysphoria (negative emotional state) predominates. Two modes of behavior are developed: the attitude towards subordinates and the attitude towards those on whom they depend. Communication with equals weighs heavily on him.

4. Cycloid - before puberty he was hyperthymic. Sudden change of mood. The phases are quite long.

5. Labile or emotionally labile. Constant, very frequent, unmotivated changes in mood.

6. Asthenoneurotic type. In the physically weak, it manifests itself most often from an early age or from birth. Extreme fatigue, physical and mental. Hypochondriacality (it all comes down to illness).

7. Sensitive – subtle, sensitive. High emotional sensitivity. They are tactful and expect this from others. At the same time, they are complex. They are overly modest and soft, which is caused by low self-esteem.

8. Psychasthenic (between sensitive and asthenic). Children who, from early childhood, show a craving for intellectual activity. They read a lot, play a little. Excessive rationalization.

9. Schizoid is the exact opposite of hypertimus. Introvert, high threshold of emotional sensitivity. Children have difficulties communicating with peers. They prefer intellectual activities to physical ones.

10. Conformal type. The most conservative type. Everything new is scary and makes us wary.

11. Unstable type. The weakest type of character, weak-willed, strives for pleasure, but cannot fight for it. He has no will. He becomes a slave in the hands of people who can provide him with an easy path to pleasure.

12. Mixed type. Obtained as a result of testing. Additional research methods are needed.

Leonhard. He identifies the following types of accentuations:

1) Demonstrative type. The main feature of a demonstrative personality is the need and constant desire to make an impression, attract attention, and be the center of attention.

2) Stuck type. The stuck personality type is characterized by high stability of affect, duration of emotional response, and experiences.

3) Pedantic type. Clearly visible external signs of this type are increased accuracy, desire for order, indecisiveness and caution.

4) Excitable type. A feature of an excitable personality is impulsive behavior.

5) Hyperthymic type. A noticeable feature of the hyperthymic personality type is the constant (or frequent) presence in high spirits.

6) Dysthymic type. Dysthymic personality is the opposite of hyperthymic. Dysthymics tend to focus on the dark, sad aspects of life.

7) Anxious type. The main feature of this type is increased anxiety, concern about possible failures, concern for one’s own fate and the fate of loved ones.

8) Exalted type. The main feature of an exalted personality is a violent, exalted reaction.

9) Emotive type. The main feature of an emotive personality is high sensitivity and deep reactions in the field of subtle emotions.

10) Cyclothymic type. The most important feature of the cyclothymic type is the alternation of hyperthymic and dysthymic states.

c) Sometimes for introverts.

d) More often for introverts.

25. Temperament is understood as... characteristics of the psyche.

a) biological;

c) dynamic. +

d) All answers are correct.

26. In temperament, personality is manifested from its side...

a) biological properties;

b) dynamic properties; +

c) social characteristics;

d) characteristics as an individual.

e) All answers are correct.

27. Features of temperament...

a) appear early; +

b) appear in adolescence;

c) change over a long period of life;

d) depend on character traits.

28. According to I.P. Pavlov, the basis for classifying the types of the nervous system are the parameters of strength, balance and .... nervous processes.

a) performance;

b) activity;

c) mobility; +

d) dynamism;

d) impulsiveness.

P.S. if there is an option “excitation and inhibition”, then this is also the correct answer

The ability of nerve cells to maintain normal performance under significant and prolonged stress determines... the nervous system.

a) activity;

c) balance;

d) mobility.

The ability to quickly switch from one type of activity to another allows you to evaluate... the nervous system.

b) balance;

c) mobility; +

d) activity.

A strong, balanced, mobile type of nervous system is the basis of... temperament.

a) sanguine; +

b) choleric;

c) phlegmatic;

d) melancholic.

32. Strong, unbalanced, mobile type of nervous
system is the basis... of temperament,

a) sanguine;

b) choleric; +

c) phlegmatic;

d) melancholic.

33. A weak, unbalanced type of nervous system is the basis of... temperament.

a) sanguine;

b) choleric;

c) phlegmatic;

d) melancholic. +

A strong, balanced, inert type of nervous system is the basis of... temperament.

a) sanguine;

b) choleric;

c) phlegmatic; +

d) melancholic.

35. Low level of mental activity, slowness of movements, easy fatigue, high emotionality are characteristic...

a) sanguine people;

b) phlegmatic people;

c) choleric people;

d) melancholic people. +

What type of temperament is characterized by vulnerability and a tendency to deep experiences?

a) Sanguine.

b) Phlegmatic.

c) Choleric.

d) Melancholic. +

What type of temperament is characterized by balance, mobility, a tendency to frequently change impressions, and sociability?

a) Sanguine. +

b) Phlegmatic.

c) Choleric.

d) Melancholic.

38. Formal-dynamic characteristics of human behavior characterize...

a) personality orientation;

b) character;

c) temperament; +

d) abilities.

P.S. if the question contains the word “dynamism”, then this is 99.9% temperament

39. An indicator of the ratio of the severity of excitation and inhibition processes is...

b) balance; +

c) mobility;

d) activity.

The ability of the nervous system to withstand strong stimuli, the endurance and performance of nerve cells describes... the nervous system.

b) balance;

c) mobility;

d) activity.

41. The properties of temperament depend on...

a) character;

b) behavior;

c) type of nervous system; +

d) education.

Temperament is changeable

c) Depends on the individual characteristics of the person.

d) Changes after strong experiences.

43. The best employees are...

a) choleric people;

b) sanguine people;

c) melancholic;

d) phlegmatic;

f) people of different temperaments, depending on the requirements and working conditions. +

44. Choleric temperament is characterized by...

45. Sanguine temperament is characterized by...

a) great impressionability and great impulsiveness;

b) low impressionability and high impulsiveness; +

c) high impressionability and low impulsiveness;

d) low impressionability and low impulsiveness.

46. ​​Melancholic temperament is characterized by...

a) great impressionability and great impulsiveness;

b) low impressionability and high impulsiveness;

c) high impressionability and low impulsiveness; +

d) low impressionability and low impulsiveness.

47. Phlegmatic temperament is characterized by...

a) great impressionability and great impulsiveness;

b) low impressionability and high impulsiveness;

c) high impressionability and low impulsiveness;

d) low impressionability and low impulsiveness. +

The set of stable individual personality characteristics that develop during a person’s life and determine his typical modes of behavior is...

a) temperament;

b) abilities;

c) character; +

d) direction.

49. Accuracy and thrift characterize the attitude
person...

a) to things; +

b) to people;

c) to work;

d) to yourself.

50. Modesty and self-criticism characterize the attitude
person...

a) to people;

b) to work;

c) to things;

Temperament is understood as natural behavioral characteristics that are typical for a given person and manifest themselves in the dynamics of tone and balance of reactions to life influences.

Human behavior depends not only on social conditions, but also on the characteristics of the natural organization of the individual, and therefore is detected quite early and clearly in children in play, activities and communication.

Temperament colors all mental manifestations of an individual; it affects the nature of the flow of emotions and thinking, volitional action, and affects the pace and rhythm of speech. At the same time, we must remember that neither interests, nor hobbies, nor social attitudes, nor the moral upbringing of an individual depend on temperament.

The doctrine of temperament arose in ancient times. Doctors Hippocrates and then Galen, observing the individual characteristics of people's behavior, made an attempt to describe and explain these characteristics. The founder of the doctrine of temperament is considered to be the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (5th century BC). He believed that there are four fluids in the human body: blood, mucus, yellow and black bile. A person's temperament is determined by the mixing of these fluids. The names of the temperaments, given by the names of the liquids, have survived to this day.

Thus, choleric temperament comes from the word chole (“bile”), sanguine temperament comes from sanguis (“blood”), phlegmatic — from phlegma (“mucus”), melancholic — from melan chole (“black bile”).

Hippocrates believed that temperament depends on a person’s lifestyle and climatic conditions. Thus, with a sedentary lifestyle, phlegm accumulates, and with an active lifestyle, bile accumulates, hence the manifestations of temperament. Hippocrates described the types quite accurately, but could not explain them scientifically.

In recent years, in addition to humoral theories, chemical, physical, anatomical, neurological and purely psychological theories have been put forward. However, none of them gives a correct and complete description of temperament.

I.P. made a significant contribution to the scientific substantiation of temperament. Pavlov, who discovered the properties of nervous activity. He showed that the innate combination of these properties characterizes what is called temperament. Unlike his predecessors, he took for research not the external structure of the body (German psychologist E. Kretschmer) and the structure of blood vessels (P.F. Lesgaft), but the organism as a whole and isolated the brain in it as a component that, firstly, regulates activity of all organs and tissues; secondly, it unites and coordinates the activities of diverse parts in the system; thirdly, it experiences the influence of all organs and, under the influence of the impulses they send, functionally rearranges the maintenance of life in organs and tissues; fourthly, it is, in the literal sense of the word, the body’s organ of communication with the outside world.

Using the conditioned reflex method, I.P. Pavlov revealed the patterns of higher nervous activity and the basic properties of nervous processes - excitation and inhibition. The main properties of nervous processes are as follows:

1. force;
2. equilibrium;
3. mobility.

The strength of nervous processes is an indicator of the performance of nerve cells and the nervous system as a whole. A strong nervous system can withstand heavy and prolonged stress, while a weak one “breaks” under these conditions.

Mobility is the speed of change from one process to another. It provides adaptation to unexpected and sudden changes in circumstances.

The combination of these properties characterizes specific types of nervous activity. Four types of nervous activity are most common. Of these, I. P. Pavlov classifies three types as strong and one as a weak type. Strong types, in turn, are divided into balanced and unbalanced, balanced types into mobile (labile) and calm (inert).

As a result, the following typology was identified:

1. a strong unbalanced (uncontrolled) type of nervous system is characterized by a strong process of excitation and less strong inhibition;
2. strong, balanced (the process of excitation is balanced with the process of inhibition), mobile;
3. strong, balanced, inert (outwardly calmer, “solid”);
4. weak is characterized by weakness of the processes of excitation and inhibition, low mobility (inertia) of nervous processes.

I.P. Pavlov identified the type of nervous system and temperament. Subsequent studies showed that the type of nervous activity does not always coincide with the type of temperament. Temperament is affected not only by the properties of nervous activity, but also by the somatic organization of the personality as a whole. The type of nervous system is considered as the makings of temperament. Temperament manifests itself not only in emotional, but also in mental and volitional processes. When they talk about a person’s temperament, they do not mean the dynamics of isolated psychological processes, but the entire syndrome (a system of dynamic features of a person’s holistic behavior).

Temperament, therefore, is nothing more than the most general characteristic of the impulsive-dynamic side of human behavior, expressing primarily the properties of the nervous system.

Choleric temperament. A person with this type of temperament is characterized by increased excitability, and as a result, unbalanced behavior. The choleric person is quick-tempered, aggressive, straightforward in relationships, and energetic in activity. Cholerics are characterized by cyclical work patterns. They can devote themselves to work with all passion, at this time they are ready to overcome obstacles and difficulties, but when their strength is exhausted, their faith in their strength and capabilities drops, a depressed mood sets in. Such cyclicality is one of the consequences of imbalance of nervous activity.

Sanguine temperament. A sanguine person is characterized by great mobility and easy adaptability to changing living conditions; he quickly finds contact with people, is sociable, and does not feel constrained in a new environment. In a team, a sanguine person is cheerful, cheerful, eagerly gets down to business, and is capable of passion. However, while developing vigorous activity, he can cool down just as quickly as he can quickly get carried away if the matter ceases to interest him and requires painstaking work and patience if it is of an everyday nature.

For sanguine people, emotions arise easily and are easily replaced. The ease with which a sanguine person forms and remakes new temporary connections and greater mobility characterize the flexibility of the mind. A sanguine person is prone to wit, quickly grasps new things, and easily switches attention. Productive in dynamic and varied work. Work that requires quick reactions and at the same time balance suits him better.

Phlegmatic temperament. A phlegmatic person is a calm, balanced person, always an even-keeled, persistent and persistent worker in life.

Balance and some inertia of nervous processes allow a phlegmatic person to remain calm in any situation. In the presence of strong inhibition that balances the process of excitation, it is not difficult for him to restrain his impulses, impulses, strictly follow the developed routine of life, the system at work, and not be distracted by insignificant reasons.

The disadvantage of a phlegmatic person is his inertia and inactivity. He needs time to swing, to concentrate, to switch it to another object. Inertia also affects the rigidity of stereotypes and the difficulty of restructuring them, which leads to excessive fixedness of character and insufficient flexibility. Inertia as a quality also has a positive meaning: it ensures slowness, thoroughness and, in general, constancy and certainty of character. Phlegmatic people are especially suitable for work that requires method, composure and long-term performance.

Melancholic temperament. Representatives of this type are distinguished by high emotional sensitivity, and as a result, increased vulnerability. Melancholic people are somewhat withdrawn, especially if they meet new people, are indecisive in difficult life circumstances, and experience strong fear in dangerous situations.