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The Musical Culture of Antiquity, the Middle Ages and the Renaissance Music of Antiquity

Musical art of the Middle Ages. Figurative and semantic content. Personalities.

Middle Ages- a long period of human development, covering more than a thousand years.

If we turn to the figurative and emotional environment of the period of the "Dark Middle Ages", as it is often called, we will see that it was filled with an intense spiritual life, creative ecstasy and the search for truth. The Christian Church has had a powerful impact on minds and hearts. Themes, plots and images of Scripture were understood as a story that unfolds from the creation of the world through the coming of Christ to the day of the Last Judgment. Earthly life was perceived as a continuous struggle between dark and light forces, and the arena of this struggle was the human soul. The expectation of the end of the world permeated the worldview of medieval people, it paints the art of this period in dramatic tones. Under these conditions, musical culture developed in two powerful layers. On the one hand, there is professional church music, which went through an enormous path of development throughout the medieval period; on the other hand, folk music, which was persecuted by representatives of the "official" church, and secular music, which existed as an amateur throughout almost the entire medieval period. Despite the antagonism of these two directions, they underwent mutual influence, and by the end of this period the results of the interpenetration of secular and church music became especially noticeable. From the point of view of the emotional and semantic content, the most characteristic of medieval music is the predominance of the ideal, spiritual and didactic beginning, both in secular and church genres.

The emotional and semantic content of the music of the Christian church was aimed at the praise of Divinity, the denial of earthly goods for the sake of reward after death, the preaching of asceticism. Music concentrated in itself that which was associated with the expression of "pure", devoid of any "bodily", material form of striving for the ideal. The impact of the music was amplified by the acoustics of the churches with their high vaults, reflecting sound and creating the effect of a divine presence. The fusion of music with architecture was especially evident with the emergence of the Gothic style. The polyphonic music that had developed by this time created an upward, free soaring of voices, repeating the architectural lines of a Gothic temple, creating a feeling of the infinity of space. The most striking examples of musical Gothic were created by the composers of the Cathedral of Notre Dame - Master Leonin and Master Perotin, nicknamed the Great.

Musical art of the Middle Ages. Genres. Features of the musical language.

The formation of secular genres during this period was prepared by the work of itinerant musicians - jugglers, minstrels and spielmans who were singers, actors, circus performers and instrumentalists all rolled into one. Jugglers, spielmans and minstrels were also joined by vagants and goliards- unlucky students and fugitive monks who brought literacy and a certain erudition to the "artistic" environment. Folk songs were sung not only in the emerging national languages ​​(French, German, English and others), but also in Latin. Itinerant students and schoolchildren (vagants) often possessed great skill in Latin versification, which gave a special acuteness to their accusatory songs directed against secular feudal lords and the Catholic Church. Gradually, wandering artists began to form workshops and settle in cities.

In the same period, a kind of "intelligentsia" stratum emerged - chivalry, among which (during periods of armistice) interest in art also flared up. Castles are turning into centers of knightly culture. Compiled a set of rules for knightly behavior that required "courtly" (refined, polite) behavior. In the 12th century, art was born in Provence at the courts of feudal lords troubadours, which was a characteristic expression of the new secular knightly culture proclaiming the cult of earthly love, enjoyment of nature, earthly joys. In a circle of images, the musical and poetic art of the troubadours knew many varieties associated mainly with love lyrics or military, service songs, reflecting the attitude of a vassal to his overlord. Often, the troubadours' love lyrics were clothed in the form of feudal service: the singer recognized himself as a vassal of a lady, who was usually the wife of his lord. He praised her dignity, beauty and nobility, glorified her dominance and "yearned" for an unattainable goal. Of course, there was a lot of conditional in this, dictated by the court etiquette of that time. However, there was often a genuine feeling hidden behind the conventional forms of knightly service, vividly and impressively expressed in poetic and musical images. The art of the troubadours was in many ways advanced for its time. Attention to the artist's personal experiences, the emphasis on the inner world of a loving and suffering personality suggests that the troubadours openly opposed themselves to the ascetic tendencies of medieval ideology. The troubadour glorifies real earthly love. In it he sees "the source and origin of all goods."

Creativity developed under the influence of the poetry of the troubadours trouvers, which was more democratic (most trouvers are from townspeople). The same themes were developed here, the artistic style of the songs was similar. In Germany a century later (13th century) a school was formed minnesingers, in which more often than among the troubadours and trouvers, songs of a moral and edifying content were developed, love motives often acquired a religious connotation, associated with the cult of the Virgin Mary. The emotional structure of the songs was distinguished by greater seriousness and depth. Minnesingers mostly served at the courts, where they organized their competitions. The names of Wolfram von Eschenbach, Walter von der Vogelweide, Tannhäuser, the hero of the famous legend, are known. In Wagner's opera based on this legend, the central scene is the competition of singers, where the hero glorifies earthly feelings and pleasures to everyone's indignation. The libretto of "Tannhäuser" written by Wagner is an example of a remarkable penetration into the worldview of an era that glorifies moral ideals, illusory love and is in a constant dramatic struggle with sinful passions.

Church genres

Gregorian chant. In the early Christian church, there were many variations of church tunes and Latin texts. It became necessary to create a single cult ritual and the corresponding liturgical music. This process was completed by the turn of the 6th and 7th centuries. Pope Gregory I. Church tunes, selected, canonized, distributed within the church year, made up the official code - the antiphonary. The choral melodies included in it became the basis of liturgical singing of the Catholic Church and were called the Gregorian chant. It was performed in one voice by a choir or ensemble of male voices. The development of the melody occurs slowly and is based on varying the initial melody. The free rhythm of the melody is subordinated to the rhythm of the words. The texts are prosaic in Latin, the very sound of which created a detachment from everything worldly. The melodic movement is smooth, if small jumps appear, then they are immediately compensated by the movement in the opposite direction. The melodies of Gregorian chants themselves fall into three groups: recitation, where each syllable of the text corresponds to one sound of the melody, psalmody, where chanting of some syllables and anniversaries are allowed, when the syllables were chanted in complex melodic patterns, most often "Hallelujah" ("Praise be to God"). Spatial symbolism (in this case, "up" and "down") is of great importance, as in other forms of art. The whole style of this monophonic singing, the absence of a "second plan", "sound perspective" in it resembles the principle of plane representation in medieval painting.
Hymn ... The flourishing of hymnmaking dates back to the 6th century. The hymns, which were characterized by greater emotional spontaneity, carried the spirit of worldly art. They were based on the melodies of the song warehouse, close to the folk. At the end of the 5th century, they were expelled from the church, but for centuries they were used as extra-liturgical music. Their return to church use (9th century) was a kind of concession to the secular feelings of believers. Unlike chorales, hymns relied on poetic texts, moreover, specially composed (and not borrowed from sacred books). This determined a clearer structure of the tunes, as well as a greater freedom of the melody, not subordinate to every word of the text.
Mass. The ritual of the Mass took shape over many centuries. The sequence of its parts in the main outline was determined by the 9th century, while the mass acquired its final form only by the 11th century. The process of shaping her music was also lengthy. The most ancient type of liturgical singing is psalmody; directly related to the liturgical act itself, it sounded throughout the service and was sung by priests and church singers. The introduction of hymns enriched the musical style of the Mass. Hymn tunes sounded at certain moments of the ritual, expressing the collective feelings of the believers. At first they were sung by the parishioners themselves, later by a professional church choir. The emotional impact of the hymns was so strong that they gradually began to supplant psalmody, occupying a dominant place in the music of the mass. It was in the form of hymns that the five main parts of the Mass (the so-called Ordinary) took shape.
I. "Kyrie eleison"("Lord, have mercy") - a prayer for forgiveness and mercy;
II. "Gloria"("Glory") - a thanksgiving hymn to the creator;
III. "Credo"("I believe") - the central part of the liturgy, which sets out the main dogmas of the Christian doctrine;
IV. "Sanctus"("Holy") - three times repeated solemnly bright exclamation, followed by a greeting cry of "Osanna", which frames the central episode "Benedictus" ("Blessed is he who is to come");
V. "Agnus Dei"("Lamb of God") - another prayer for mercy, addressed to the Christ who sacrificed himself; the last part ends with the words: "Dona nobis pacem" ("Grant us peace").
Secular genres

Vocal music
Medieval music and poetry was mostly amateur in nature. It implied sufficient universalism: one and the same person was a composer, poet, singer, and instrumentalist, since the song was often performed with the accompaniment of a lute or viola. Of great interest are the poetic lyrics of songs, especially examples of knightly art. As for the music, it was influenced by Gregorian chants, the music of itinerant musicians, as well as the music of the Eastern peoples. Often the performers, and sometimes the authors of the music of the troubadours' songs were jugglers who traveled with the knights, accompanying their singing and performing the functions of a servant and assistant. Thanks to this cooperation, the boundaries between folk and knightly musical creativity were erased.
Dance music An area in which the importance of instrumental music was especially pronounced was dance music. Since the end of the 11th century, a number of musical and dance genres have emerged, intended exclusively for performance on instruments. No harvest festival, no wedding or other family celebration was complete without dancing. The dances were often performed to the singing of the dancers themselves or to the horn, in some countries - to the orchestra consisting of trumpet, drum, bell, cymbals.
Branle French folk dance. During the Middle Ages, it was most popular in towns and villages. Soon after its appearance, it attracted the attention of the aristocracy and became a ballroom dance. Thanks to simple movements, the curses could be danced by everyone. Its participants hold hands, forming a closed circle, which can break into lines, turning into zigzag moves. There were many varieties of swearing: simple, double, funny, horse, laundress, swearing with torches, etc. The gavotte, paspier and burré were built on the basis of the movements of the brute;
Stella The dance was performed by pilgrims who came to the monastery to worship the statue of the Virgin Mary. She stood on the top of the mountain, illuminated by the sun, and it seemed that an unearthly light was streaming from her. Hence the name of the dance originated (stella - from Latin star). People danced in one impulse, overwhelmed by the splendor and purity of the Mother of God.
Karol It was popular in the 12th century. Karol is an open circle. During the performance of the karol, the dancers sang holding hands. Ahead of the dancers was the lead singer. The chorus was sung by all members. The rhythm of the dance was now smooth and slow, then it accelerated and turned into a run.
Dances of Death During the late Middle Ages, the topic of death became quite popular in European culture. The plague epidemic, which takes a huge number of lives, influenced the attitude towards death. If earlier it was a deliverance from earthly suffering, then in the XIII century. she was perceived with horror. Death was portrayed in drawings and engravings in the form of frightening images, discussed in the lyrics. The dance is performed in a circle. The dancers begin to move, as if they are attracted by an unknown force. Gradually they are seized by the music played by the messenger of Death, they begin to dance and in the end they fall dead.
Bassdance Promenade dance processions. They were solemn and technically uncomplicated. Those who had gathered for the feast in their best outfits passed in front of the owner, as if demonstrating themselves and their costume - this was the meaning of the dance. Procession dances have firmly become part of the court life, not a single festival could do without them.
Estampi (prints) Pair dances accompanied by instrumental music. Sometimes the "print" was performed by three: one man led two women. Music played an important role. It consisted of several parts and determined the nature of the movements and the number of measures per part.

Troubadours:

Giraut Riquiere 1254-1292

Guiraut Riquier is a Provencal poet who is often referred to as "the last troubadour". A prolific and skillful master (48 of his melodies have survived), but not alien to spiritual themes and significantly complicating his vocal writing, moving away from songwriting. For many years he was at the court in Barcelona. Participated in the crusade. His position in relation to art is also of interest. Known for his correspondence with the famous patron of the arts, Alphonse the Wise, King of Castile and Leon. In it, he complained that dishonest people, "degrading the title of a juggler," are often confused with knowledgeable troubadours. This is "shameful and harmful" for representatives of the "high art of poetry and music, who know how to compose poetry and create instructive and enduring works." Under the guise of the king's answer, Riquière proposed his own systematization: 1) "doctors of poetic art" - the best of the troubadours, "illuminating the path of society," the authors of "exemplary poems and canons, graceful short stories and didactic works" in the spoken language; 2) troubadours, who compose songs and music for them, create dance melodies, ballads, albas and syrevents; 3) jugglers catering to the taste of the noble: they play different instruments, tell stories and fairy tales, sing other people's poems and canons; 4) buffons (jesters) "show their low art on the streets and squares and lead an unworthy way of life." They breed trained monkeys, dogs and goats, demonstrate puppets, imitate the singing of birds. Buffon plays or whines in front of the common people for small handouts on instruments ... traveling from court to court, without shame, he patiently endures all kinds of humiliation and despises pleasant and noble occupations.

Riquiere, like many troubadours, was worried about the knightly virtues. The highest dignity, he considered generosity. "In no way do I speak ill of valor and intelligence, but generosity surpasses everything."

Feelings of bitterness and frustration sharply intensified towards the end of the 13th century, when the collapse of the Crusades turned into an inescapable reality, which could not be ignored and over which it was impossible not to think. "It's time for me to finish with the songs!" - in these verses (they date back to 1292), Giraut Riquiere expressed his disappointment with the disastrous outcome of the crusading enterprises:
"The hour has come for us - for the army of men - to leave the Holy Land!" The poem "It's time for me to end with songs" (1292) is considered the last troubadour song.

Composers, musicians

Guillaume de Machaut approx. 1300 - 1377

Machaut is a French poet, musician and composer. He served at the court of the Czech king, from 1337 he was canon of the Reims Cathedral. One of the most prominent musicians of the late Middle Ages, the largest figure in the French Ars nova. He is known as a multi-genre composer: his motets, ballads, virale, le, rondo, canons and other song (song and dance) forms have come down to us. His music is distinguished by refined expressiveness, refined sensuality. In addition, Machaut created the first author's Mass in history (for the coronation of King Charles V in Reims in 1364 .. It is the first author's Mass in the history of music - an integral and complete work of a famous composer. on the one hand, from the musical and poetic culture of troubadours and trouvers in its long-standing song basis, on the other, from the French schools of polyphony of the 12-13th centuries.

Leonin (mid-12th century)

Leonin is an outstanding composer, along with Perotin belongs to the School of Notre Dame. History has preserved for us the name of this once famous creator of the "Big Book of Organums", designed for the annual circle of church singing. Leonin's organums replaced choral singing in unison with two-part singing of soloists. His two-part organums were distinguished by such a careful elaboration, harmonious "coherence" of sound, which was impossible without preliminary thinking and recording: in Leonin's art, it is not the singer-improviser that comes to the fore, but the composer. The main innovation of Leonin was the rhythmized recording, which made it possible to establish a clear rhythm of the mainly mobile upper voice. The very character of the upper voice was distinguished by melodic generosity.

Peroten

Perotin, Perotinus - French composer of the late 12th - 1st third of the 13th centuries. In contemporary treatises, he was called "the great master Perotin" (it is not known exactly who he meant, since there were several musicians to whom this name can be attributed). Perotin developed a kind of polyphonic singing that had developed in the work of his predecessor Leonin, who also belonged to the so-called Parisian, or Notre Dame, school. Perotin created tall specimens of melismatic organum. He wrote not only 2-voiced compositions (like Leonin), but also 3, 4-voiced compositions, and, apparently, he complicated and enriched polyphony rhythmically and textured. His 4-voice organums did not yet obey the existing laws of polyphony (imitation, canon, etc.). In the work of Perotin, a tradition of polyphonic chants of the Catholic Church has developed.

Josquin des Pré c. 1440-1524

Franco-Flemish composer. From a young age, a church choir. He served in various cities in Italy (in 1486-99 as a chorister of the papal chapel in Rome) and France (Cambrai, Paris). He was the court musician of Louis XII; received recognition as a master not only of cult music, but also of secular songs that anticipated the French chanson. The last years of his life, the rector of the cathedral in Condé-sur-Esco. Josquin Despres is one of the greatest composers of the Renaissance who influenced the subsequent development of Western European art in many ways. Creatively summarizing the achievements of the Dutch school, he created innovative works of spiritual and secular genres (masses, motets, psalms, frottols) imbued with a humanistic outlook, subordinating high polyphonic technique to new artistic tasks. The melody of his works, associated with genre origins, is richer and more multifaceted than that of the earlier Dutch masters. The "clarified" polyphonic style of Josquin Despres, free from contrapuntal complications, was a turning point in the history of choral writing.

Vocal genres

The entire era as a whole is characterized by a clear predominance of vocal genres, and in particular vocal polyphony... An unusually complex mastery of polyphony of a strict style, genuine scholarship, virtuoso technique coexisted with the bright and fresh art of everyday dissemination. Instrumental music acquires some independence, but its direct dependence on vocal forms and on everyday sources (dance, song) will be overcome only a little later. Major musical genres remain associated with verbal text. The essence of Renaissance humanism was reflected in the composing of choral songs in the Frottol and Vilanell styles.
Dance genres

During the Renaissance, everyday dance acquired great importance. In Italy, France, England, Spain, many new dance forms are emerging. Various strata of society have their own dances, develop the manner of their performance, rules of behavior during balls, evenings, festivities. Renaissance dances are more complex than the simple curses of the late Middle Ages. Dances with a round dance and linear-rank composition are replaced by pair (duet) dances, built on complex movements and figures.
Volta - a pair dance of Italian origin. Its name comes from the Italian word voltare, which means "to turn". The size is three-beat, the pace is moderately fast. The main drawing of the dance consists in the fact that the gentleman nimbly and abruptly turns the lady dancing with him in the air. This climb is usually done very high. It requires great strength and dexterity from the gentleman, since, despite the sharpness and some impetuosity of the movements, the lift must be performed clearly and beautifully.
Galliard - an old dance of Italian origin, widespread in Italy, England, France, Spain, Germany. The pace of the early galliards is moderately fast, the size is three-beat. Galliarda was often performed after the pavana, with which it was sometimes thematically associated. Galliards 16th century sustained in a melodic-harmonic texture with a melody in the upper voice. Galliard tunes were popular among wide sections of French society. During the serenades, Orleans students played galliard tunes on lutes and guitars. Like the chime, the galliard had the character of a kind of dance dialogue. The cavalier moved through the hall with his lady. When the man performed the solo, the lady stayed where she was. The male solo consisted of a variety of complex movements. After that, he again approached the lady and continued the dance.
Pavana - a side dance of the 16-17th centuries. The pace is moderately slow, 4/4 or 2/4 beat. Different sources disagree about its origin (Italy, Spain, France). The most popular version is a Spanish dance that imitates the movements of a peacock walking with a beautifully flowing tail. Was close to bass dance. To the music of the pavans, various ceremonial processions took place: the entry of the authorities into the city, seeing off the noble bride to the church. In France and Italy, the pavana is established as a court dance. The solemn character of the pavana allowed the court society to shine with the grace and grace of their manners and movements. The people and the bourgeoisie did not perform this dance. Pavane, like the minuet, was performed strictly according to rank. The king and queen began the dance, then the dauphin and a noble lady entered the dance, then the princes, etc. Cavaliers performed pavana with a sword and in drapes. The ladies were in formal dresses with heavy long trenches, which had to be skillfully wielded during movements, without lifting them from the floor. The movement of the tren made the moves beautiful, giving the pavane a splendor and solemnity. For the queen, the ladies' attendants carried a train. Before the start of the dance, it was supposed to go around the hall. At the end of the dance, the couples again walked around the hall with bows and curtsies. But before putting on the hat, the gentleman had to put his right hand on the back of the lady's shoulder, the left hand (holding the hat) on her waist and kiss her on the cheek. During the dance, the lady's eyes were lowered; only from time to time she looked at her beau. The pavana was preserved for the longest time in England, where it was very popular.
Allemande - slow dance of German origin in 4-beat. He belongs to the massive "low", jump-free dances. The performers became pairs one after another. The number of pairs was not limited. The gentleman held the lady's hands. The column moved around the hall, and when it reached the end, the participants made a turn in place (without separating their hands) and continued the dance in the opposite direction.
Courant - court dance of Italian origin. The chime was simple and complex. The first consisted of simple, planing steps, performed mainly forward. The complex chime was of a pantomimic nature: three gentlemen invited three ladies to participate in the dance. The ladies were taken to the opposite corner of the hall and asked to dance. The ladies refused. The gentlemen, having received a refusal, left, but then returned again and knelt in front of the ladies. Only after the pantomime scene did the dance begin. The chimes are of the Italian and French types. The Italian chime is a lively 3/4 or 3/8 meter dance with a simple rhythm in a melodic-harmonic texture. French - a solemn dance ("dance of manners"), a smooth, proud procession. 3/2 size, moderate tempo, well-developed polyphonic texture.
Sarabande - a popular dance of the 16th - 17th centuries. Derived from the Spanish female dance with castanets. Initially, it was accompanied by singing. The famous choreographer and teacher Carlo Blazis in one of his works gives a short description of the sarabanda: "In this dance, everyone chooses a lady to whom he is not indifferent. The music gives a signal, and two lovers perform a dance, noble, measured, however, the importance of this dance does not in the least interfere with pleasure, and modesty gives it even more grace; everyone's eyes are happy to follow the dancers who perform various figures, expressing with their movement all phases of love. " Initially, the pace of the sarabanda was moderately fast, later (from the 17th century) a slow French sarabanda appeared with a characteristic rhythmic pattern: ... was banned by the Castilian Council.
Gigue - dance of English origin, the fastest, triplet, turning into triplet. Initially, the gigue was a pair dance, but it spread among sailors as a solo, very fast dance of a comic character. Later it appeared in instrumental music as the final part of an old dance suite.

Vocal genres

Baroque features were most clearly manifested in those genres where music was intertwined with other arts. These were, first of all, opera, oratorio and such genres of sacred music as passions and cantatas. Music combined with the word, and in the opera - with costumes and decorations, that is, with elements of painting, applied art and architecture, were called upon to express the complex mental world of a person, the complex and varied events he experienced. The neighborhood of heroes, gods, real and surreal actions, all sorts of magic were natural for the baroque taste, were the highest expression of changeability, dynamism, transformation, miracles were not external, purely decorative elements, but constituted an indispensable part of the artistic system.

Opera.

The operatic genre was most popular in Italy. A large number of opera houses are opening, which are an amazing, unique phenomenon. Countless boxes, draped with heavy velvet, fenced with a barrier parterre (where they stood at that time, not sat) gathered during 3 opera seasons almost the entire population of the city. Lodges were bought for the whole season by patrician names, ordinary people crowded in the stalls, sometimes admitted free of charge - but everyone felt at ease, in an atmosphere of continuous celebration. In the boxes there were buffets, couches, card tables for the game of "Pharaoh"; each of them was connected to special rooms where food was prepared. The audience went to the neighboring boxes as if they were guests; Here, acquaintances were made, love affairs began, the latest news was exchanged, there was a card game for big money, etc. And a magnificent, delightful spectacle unfolded on the stage, designed to influence the minds and feelings of the audience, to enchant sight and hearing. The courage and valor of the heroes of antiquity, the fabulous adventures of mythological characters appeared before the admiring listeners in all the splendor of the musical and decorative design achieved during the almost 100-year existence of the opera house.

Having emerged at the end of the 16th century in Florence, in a circle ("camerata") of humanist scholars, poets and composers, opera soon became the leading musical genre in Italy. K. Monteverdi, who worked in Mantua and Venice, played an especially important role in the development of opera. Two of his most famous stage works, Orpheus and The Coronation of Poppea, are noted for their astounding excellence in musical drama. During Monteverdi's lifetime, a new opera school emerged in Venice, headed by F. Cavalli and M. Chesti. With the opening of the first public theater of San Cassiano in Venice in 1637, it became possible for anyone who bought a ticket to see the opera. Gradually, in the stage action, the importance of spectacular, outwardly spectacular moments increases to the detriment of the ancient ideals of simplicity and naturalness, which inspired the discoverers of the opera genre. The staging technique is undergoing tremendous development, which makes it possible to embody the most fantastic adventures of the heroes on the stage - right up to shipwrecks, flying through the air, etc. Grandiose, colorful decorations that create the illusion of perspective (the stage in Italian theaters was oval in shape) transported the viewer to fairytale palaces and to the sea, to mysterious dungeons and magical gardens.

At the same time, in the music of operas, more and more emphasis was placed on the solo vocal beginning, subordinating to itself the rest of the elements of expressiveness; this inevitably later led to a fascination with self-sufficient vocal virtuosity and a decrease in the tension of dramatic action, which often became just an excuse for demonstrating the phenomenal vocal abilities of solo singers. In accordance with custom, castratic singers performed both male and female parts as soloists. Their performance combined the strength and brilliance of male voices with the lightness and mobility of female voices. Such use of high voices in parties of a courageous and heroic make-up was traditional at that time and was not perceived as unnatural; it is widespread not only in papal Rome, where women were officially forbidden to perform in the opera, but also in other cities of Italy.

From the second half of the 17th century. the leading role in the history of Italian musical theater passes to the Neapolitan opera. The principles of operatic drama developed by Neapolitan composers become universal, and Neapolitan opera is identified with the nationwide type of Italian opera seria. A huge role in the development of the Neapolitan opera school was played by conservatories, which grew from orphanages to special musical educational institutions. They paid particular attention to classes with singers, which included training in the air, on the water, in noisy crowded places and where the echo seemed to control the singer. A long line of brilliant virtuoso vocalists - pupils of the conservatories - spread throughout the world the glory of Italian music and "beautiful singing" (bel canto). For the Neapolitan opera, the conservatories constituted a permanent reserve of professional personnel, were the key to its creative renewal. Among the many Italian opera composers of the Baroque era, the most outstanding was the work of Claudio Monteverdi. In his later works, the basic principles of operatic drama and the various forms of opera solo singing were developed, which were followed by most of the Italian composers of the 17th century.

The original and only creator of the national English opera was Henry Purcell. He has written a large number of theatrical works, among which the only opera is Dido and Aeneas. "Dido and Aeneas" is almost the only English opera without spoken parts and dialogues, in which the dramatic action is set to music from beginning to end. All other musical and theatrical works of Purcell contain conversational dialogues (in our time, such works are called "musical").

"Opera is its delightful abode, its a land of transformations; in the blink of an eye people become gods, and gods become people. There the traveler does not need to travel around the country, for the countries themselves travel in front of him. Are you bored in the terrible desert? Instantly the sound of a whistle transports you to the gardens Idylls; another brings you from hell to the dwelling of the gods: yet another - and you find yourself in the camp of fairies. Opera fairies fascinate just like the fairies of our fairy tales, but their art is more natural ... "(Dufreni).

"Opera is a performance as strange as it is magnificent, where the eyes and ears are more satisfied than the mind; where submission to music causes ridiculous absurdities, where arias are sung when the city is destroyed, and they dance around the grave; where the palaces of Pluto and the Sun can be seen, and gods, demons, wizards, monsters, witchcraft, palaces erected and destroyed in the blink of an eye. Such oddities are tolerated and even admired, for opera is the land of fairies "(Voltaire, 1712).

Oratorio

Oratorio, including the spiritual one, was often perceived by contemporaries as an opera without costumes and decorations. However, cult oratorios and passions sounded in churches, where the temple itself and the vestments of the priests served as decoration and costume.

The oratorio was, first of all, a spiritual genre. The word oratorio itself (it. Oratorio) comes from the late Latin oratorium - "prayer room", and the Latin oratorium - "I say, I pray." The oratorio was born simultaneously with the opera and cantata, but in the temple. Its predecessor was the liturgical drama. The development of this church action went in two directions. On the one hand, acquiring a more and more common character, it gradually turned into a comic performance. On the other hand, the desire to preserve the seriousness of prayer communication with God all the time pushed towards a static performance, even with the most developed and dramatic plot. This ultimately led to the emergence of the oratorio as an independent, first purely temple, and then concert genre.

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Petrozavodsk State Conservatory (Academy) named after A.K. Glazunov

abstract

On the topic: "Music of the Middle Ages"

Completed by: student Ilyina Yulia

Teacher: A.I. Tokunov

Introduction

Music of the Middle Ages is a period of development of musical culture, covering a period of time from about the 5th to the 14th century A.D.

The Middle Ages is a great era in human history, the time of the dominance of the feudal system.

Periodization of culture:

Early Middle Ages - V - X centuries

Mature Middle Ages - XI - XIV centuries

In 395, the Roman Empire split into two parts: Western and Eastern. In the western part, on the ruins of Rome in the 5th-9th centuries, barbarian states existed: Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Franks, etc. In the 9th century, as a result of the collapse of the empire of Charlemagne, three states were formed here: France, Germany, Italy. The capital of the Eastern part was Constantinople, founded by Emperor Constantine on the site of the Greek colony of Byzantium - hence the name of the state.

In the Middle Ages, a new type of musical culture is emerging in Europe - feudal, combining professional art, amateur music-making and folklore. Since the church dominates all areas of spiritual life, the basis of professional musical art is the activity of musicians in temples and monasteries. Secular professional art is initially represented only by singers who create and perform epic tales at court, in the homes of the nobility, among warriors, etc. (bards, skalds, etc.). Over time, amateur and semi-professional forms of chivalry playing develop: in France - the art of troubadours and trouvers (Adam de la Hal, XIII century), in Germany - Minnesingers (Wolfram von Eschenbach, Walter von der Vogelweide, XII-XIII centuries), and also urban artisans. All sorts of genera, genres and forms of songs (epic, "dawn", rondo, le, virel, ballads, canzones, laudas, etc.) are cultivated in feudal castles and in cities.

New musical instruments come into everyday life, including those that came from the East (viola, lute, etc.), ensembles (unstable compositions) appear. Folklore flourishes in the peasant environment. There are also “folk professionals”: ​​storytellers, wandering synthetic artists (jugglers, mimes, minstrels, shpilmans, buffoons). Music again performs mainly applied and spiritual-practical functions. Creativity appears in unity with performance (usually in one person).

Gradually, albeit slowly, the content of music, its genres, forms, means of expression are being enriched. In Western Europe from the 6th-7th centuries. a strictly regulated system of monophonic (monodic) church music based on diatonic modes (Gregorian singing) was formed, combining recitation (psalmody) and singing (hymns). At the turn of the 1st and 2nd millennia, polyphony arises. New vocal (choral) and vocal-instrumental (choir and organ) genres are being formed: organum, motet, conduction, then mass. In France, in the XII century, the first composing (creative) school was formed at Notre Dame Cathedral (Leonin, Perotin). At the turn of the Renaissance (the ars nova style in France and Italy, XIV century) in professional music, monophony is supplanted by polyphony, music begins to gradually free itself from purely practical functions (servicing church rites), the importance of secular genres, including song genres, increases in it (Guillaume de Machaut).

The material basis of the Middle Ages was made up of feudal relations. Medieval culture is formed in the conditions of a rural estate. In the future, the urban environment - burghers - becomes the social basis of culture. With the formation of states, the main estates are formed: the clergy, the nobility, the people.

The art of the Middle Ages is closely connected with the church. The Christian faith is the basis of philosophy, ethics, aesthetics, and the entire spiritual life of this time. Filled with religious symbolism, art is directed from the earthly, transitory - to the spiritual, eternal.

Along with the official church culture (high), there was a secular culture (grassroots) - folk (lower social strata) and knightly (courtly).

The main centers of professional music of the early Middle Ages were cathedrals, chanting schools with them, monasteries - the only centers of education of that time. They studied Greek and Latin, arithmetic and music.

Rome was the main center of church music in Western Europe during the Middle Ages. At the end of the 6th - beginning of the 7th century. the main variety of Western European church music is formed - the Gregorian chant, named after Pope Gregory I, who carried out the reform of church singing, bringing together and ordering various church chants. Gregorian chant is a monophonic Catholic chant in which the centuries-old singing traditions of various Middle Eastern and European peoples (Syrians, Jews, Greeks, Romans, etc.) have merged. It was precisely the smooth monophonic unfolding of a single melody that was called upon to personify a single will, the direction of attention of parishioners in accordance with the dogmas of Catholicism. The character of the music is strict, impersonal. The chorale was performed by a chorus (hence the name), some sections by a soloist. The forward movement on the basis of diatonic modes prevails. Gregorian singing allowed many gradations, ranging from a severely slow choral psalmody to anniversaries (melismatic chanting of a syllable), requiring virtuoso vocal skill for their performance.

Gregorian chanting alienates the listener from reality, evokes humility, leads to contemplation, mystical detachment. This influence is also facilitated by the text in Latin, which is incomprehensible to the bulk of the parishioners. The rhythm of the singing was determined by the text. It is vague, indefinite, due to the nature of the accents of the declamation of the text.

The various types of Gregorian chanting were brought together in the main worship of the Catholic Church, the Mass, in which five stable parts were established:

Kyrie eleison (Lord have mercy)

Gloria (glory)

Credo (I believe)

Sanctus (holy)

Agnus Dei (Lamb of God).

Over time, elements of folk music begin to seep into Gregorian chant through hymns, sequences and tropes. If the psalmods were sung by a professional choir of singers and clergymen, then the hymns were at first performed by parishioners. They were inserts into official worship (they had the features of folk music). But soon the hymn parts of the mass began to supplant the psalmodic ones, which led to the appearance of the polyphonic mass.

The first sequences were a subtext to the melody of the anniversary so that one sound of the melody would have a separate syllable. Sequencing is becoming a widespread genre (the most popular are "Veni, sancte spiritus", "Dies irae", "Stabat mater"). "Dies irae" were used by Berlioz, Liszt, Tchaikovsky, Rachmaninoff (very often as a symbol of death).

The first examples of polyphony come from monasteries - organum (movement in parallel fifths or quarts), gimel, foburdon (parallel sixth chords), conduct. Composers: Leonin and Perotin (12-13th centuries - Notre Dame Cathedral).

The carriers of secular folk music in the Middle Ages were mimes, jugglers, minstrels in France, spielmans in the countries of German culture, hohlars in Spain, buffoons in Russia. These itinerant artists were versatile masters: they combined singing, dancing, playing various instruments with magic, circus art, and puppetry.

The other side of secular culture was the knightly (courtly) culture (the culture of secular feudal lords). Almost all noble people were knights - from poor warriors to kings. A special knightly code is being formed, according to which the knight, along with courage and valor, had to have exquisite manners, be educated, generous, generous, faithfully serve the Beautiful Lady. All aspects of knightly life are reflected in the musical and poetic art of the troubadours (Provence - southern France), trouvers (northern France), minnesingers (Germany). The art of troubadours is associated primarily with love lyrics. The most popular genre of love lyrics was canzona (among the minnesingers - "Morning Songs" - Albs).

Truvers, making extensive use of the experience of troubadours, have created their own original genres: "weaving songs", "May songs". An important area of ​​the musical genres of troubadours, trouvers and minnesingers was song and dance genres: rondo, ballad, viirele (refrain forms), as well as heroic epic (French epic "Song of Roland", German - "Song of the Nibelungs"). Crusader songs were common among the minnesingers.

Characteristic features of the art of troubadours, trouvers and minnesingers:

Monophony is a consequence of the inextricable connection between the melody and the poetic text, which follows from the very essence of musical and poetic art. Monophony also corresponded to the setting for an individualized expression of one's own experiences, for a personal assessment of the content of an utterance (often the expression of personal experiences was framed by outlining pictures of nature).

Mainly vocal performance. The role of the instruments was not significant: it was reduced to the performance of introductions, interludes and postludes, framing the vocal melody.

It is still impossible to speak of knightly art as a professional one, but for the first time in the conditions of secular music-making, a powerful musical and poetic direction was created with a developed complex of expressive means and a relatively perfect musical writing.

One of the important achievements of the mature Middle Ages, starting from the X-XI centuries, was the development of cities (burgher culture). The main features of urban culture were anti-church, freedom-loving orientation, connection with folklore, its laughter and carnival character. The Gothic architectural style is developing. New polyphonic genres are being formed: from the 13-14th to the 16th centuries. - motet (from French - “word.” For a motet, typically melodic dissimilarity of voices intoning different texts at the same time - often even in different languages), madrigal (from Italian - “song in the native language”, ie Italian. Texts love-lyrical, pastoral), kachcha (from Italian - "hunting" - a vocal piece based on a text depicting hunting).

Itinerant folk musicians move from a nomadic lifestyle to a sedentary one, populate entire city blocks and form a kind of “musician workshops”. Beginning in the 12th century, the Vagants and Goliards joined folk musicians - declassed people from different classes (schoolchildren, fugitive monks, wandering clerics). In contrast to the illiterate jugglers - typical representatives of the art of the oral tradition - the vagants and goliards were literate: they knew Latin and the rules of classical versification, composed music - songs (the circle of images is associated with school science and student life) and even complex compositions such as conducts and motets ...

Universities have become a significant center of musical culture. Music, or rather, musical acoustics, together with astronomy, mathematics, physics, entered the quadrium, i.e. a cycle of four disciplines studied at universities.

Thus, in the medieval city there were centers of musical culture of different nature and social orientation: associations of folk musicians, court music, music of monasteries and cathedrals, university music practice.

Musical theory of the Middle Ages was closely related to theology. In the few musical-theoretical treatises that have come down to us, music was viewed as a "servant of the church." Among the prominent treatises of the early Middle Ages stand out 6 books "On Music" by Augustine, 5 books by Boethius "On the Establishment of Music" and others. A great place in these treatises was given to abstract scholastic issues, the doctrine of the cosmic role of music, and so on.

The medieval fret system was developed by representatives of the church professional musical art - therefore, the name "church frets" was assigned to the medieval frets. Ionian and Aeolian were established as the main modes.

Musical theory of the Middle Ages put forward the doctrine of hexachords. In each fret, 6 degrees were used in practice (for example: do, re, mi, fa, sol, la). X was then avoided because together with the fa, it formed an enlarged fourth, which was considered very dissonant and figuratively called "the devil in music."

Invalid recording was widely used. Guido Aretinsky improved the musical notation system. The essence of his reform was as follows: the presence of four lines, the third ratio between individual lines, a key sign (originally alphabetic) or line coloring. He also introduced syllabic designations for the first six degrees of the scale: ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la.

Mensural notation is introduced, where a certain rhythmic measure was assigned to each note (Latin mensura - measure, measurement). The name of the durations: maxim, longa, brevis, etc.

XIV century - a transitional period between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. The art of France and Italy of the XIV century received the name "Ars nova" (from Latin - new art), and in Italy it possessed all the properties of the early Renaissance. Main features: refusal to use exclusively genres of church music and appeal to secular vocal and instrumental chamber genres (ballad, kaccha, madrigal), convergence with everyday songwriting, the use of various musical instruments. Ars nova is the opposite of the so-called. ars antiqua (lat. ars antiqua - old art), meaning musical art before the beginning of the XIV century. The largest representatives of ars nova were Guillaume de Machaut (14th century, France) and Francesco Landino (14th century, Italy).

Thus, the musical culture of the Middle Ages, despite the relative limited means, represents a higher level in comparison with the music of the Ancient World and contains the prerequisites for a magnificent flourishing of musical art in the Renaissance.

music middle ages gregorian troubadour

1. Basics

Troubadours(French troubadours, from Ox. trobar - to compose poetry) or, as they are often called, minstrels are poets and singers of the Middle Ages, whose work spans the period from the eleventh to the thirteenth century, and its heyday begins in the twelfth, and ends at the beginning of the thirteenth century. The art of troubadours originated in the southern part of France, its main center was the Provence region. The troubadours wrote their poems in the Occ Romance language, which was spoken in France south of the Loire, as well as in the regions of Italy and Spain adjacent to France. Troubadours were active participants in the social, religious and political life of society. They were persecuted for criticizing the church. The Albigensian Crusade in 1209-1229 put an end to their art. The work of the troubadours was related to the art of the troubadours. Having appeared in the southern regions of France under the same historical conditions as the music of the troubadours, the lyrical works of the troubadour had much in common with it. Moreover, the trouvers were under the direct and very strong influence of the poetry of the troubadours, which was due to the intensive literary exchange.

Minnesingers- German lyric poets-singers who praised the love of chivalry, love for the Lady, service to God and the overlord, crusades. The lyrics of the Minnesingers have survived to the present day, for example, in the Heidelberg manuscript. The word "Minnezang" is used in several ways. In a broad sense, the concept of minnesang unites several genres: secular knightly poetry, love (in Latin and German) poetry of the vagantes and shpielmans, as well as the later “court (courtly) village poetry” (German höfische Dorfpoesie). In a narrow sense, minnesang is understood as a very specific style of German knightly poetry - courtly literature that arose under the influence of the troubadours of Provence, France and Flemish.

folk music(or folklore, English folklore) - musical and poetic creativity of the people. It is an integral part of folklore and at the same time is included in the historical process of the formation and development of cult and secular, professional and mass musical culture. At the conference of the International Council of Folk Music (early 1950s), folk music was defined as a product of musical tradition, formed in the process of oral transmission by three factors - continuity (continuity), variability (variability) and selectivity (selection of the environment). and written musical traditions. Since the development of written musical traditions, there has been a constant mutual influence of cultures. Thus, folk music exists on a certain territory and at a specific historical time, that is, it is limited by space and time, which creates a system of musical-folklore dialects in every folk musical culture.

Gregorian chant(Latin cantus gregorianus; English Gregorian chant, French chant grégorien, German gregorianischer Gesang, Italian canto gregoriano), Gregorian chant [cantus planus - the traditional liturgical chant of the Roman Catholic Church. The term "Gregorian chant" comes from the name Gregory I the Great (Pope 590-604), to whom medieval tradition attributed the authorship of most of the chants of the Roman liturgy. In reality, the role of Gregory was limited, apparently, only to the compilation of the liturgical use, possibly the antiphonary. The word chorale in Russian is used ambiguously (often in the sense of a four-part treatment of church songs by Lutherans, also in musicological works - in the phrase "choral warehouse" [meaning polyphony]), therefore, to designate the liturgical monody of Catholics, it is advisable to use the authentic medieval term cantus planus ( which can be translated in Russian as "smooth chant", "even chant", etc.).

According to the degree of chanting (liturgical) text, chants are subdivided into syllabic (1 tone per syllable of the text), nonumatic (2-3 tones per syllable) and melismatic (unlimited number of tones per syllable). The first type includes recitative exclamations, psalms and most of the antiphons of the office, the second - mainly introits, communio (participial antiphon) and some ordinary chants of the Mass, the third - the large responsories of the office and the masses (i.e. degrees), tracts, hallelujah, etc.

Byzantine sacred music... The Apostle Paul testifies that the early Christians sang praises to God in psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs (Eph. 5:19). Thus, music has always been used in the Church. Church historian Eusebius writes that the psalms and hymns were created by believers "from the very beginning to glorify the Lord." Along with the ancient Greek language for composing hymns, Christian poets also used ancient Greek music, which was then spread throughout the enlightened world. The great Fathers of the first three centuries, such as St. Ignatius the God-bearer, St. Justin the Philosopher, St. Irenaeus, St. Gregory Bishop of Neocaesarea, miracle worker, showed a special interest in psalmopenia. A special place in the singing tradition is occupied by St. John Damascene (676-756), who, in addition to writing beautiful chants, systematized church music. He divided the music into eight voices: the first, second, third, fourth, first plugal, second plugal, third plugal (or varis), and fourth plugal, and established a way of recording music using special characters. Saint John Damascene limited the unauthorized, worldly composition of music and defended simplicity and piety in it.

2. Musical instruments of medieval Europe

Shalmey appeared in the XIII century, it is similar in structure to the krumhorn. For convenience, a special bend called "pirouette" is made in the upper part of the barrel (a modern saxophone has something similar). Of the eight holes for the fingers, one was closed by a valve, which also facilitated the game process. Subsequently, valves were used in all woodwinds. The sound of the shalmey is sharp and sonorous, and even low-register varieties of the instrument seem loud and shrill to the modern listener.

Longitudinal flutes of various register were very popular. They are called longitudinal because, unlike modern transverse flutes, the performer holds them vertically, and not horizontally. Reeds are not used in flutes, so they sound quieter than other wind instruments, but their timbre is surprisingly gentle and rich in shades. Stringed bowed instruments of the Middle Ages - rebeck and fidel. They have from two to five strings, but the fidel has a more rounded body, vaguely reminiscent of a pear, while the rebeck (similar in timbre) has a more oblong shape. Since the XI century. Known is the Trumshite instrument, original in design. The name comes from two German words: Trumme - "pipe" and Scheit - "log". The Trumshite has a long, wedge-shaped body and one string. In the XVII century. inside the body, additional resonating strings were pulled. They were not bowed over them, but when playing on the main string, they vibrated, and this brought additional shades to the timbre of the sound. For the string, there was a special stand, in which one leg was shorter than the other, and therefore the stand did not fit snugly against the body. During the playing, under the influence of the vibration of the string, it hit the body, and thus the original effect of "percussion accompaniment" was created.

In addition to the bowed ones, the string group also included plucked ones - harp and zither. The medieval harp is similar in shape to the modern one, but much smaller in size. Zither is a bit like a gusli, but it is more complex. A small round ledge was made on one side of the wooden case (in the form of a rectangular box). The neck (from German Griff - "handle") - a wooden plate for stringing the strings - is divided by special metal projections - frets. Thanks to them, the performer precisely hits the desired note with his finger. The zither has from thirty to forty strings, of which four to five are metal, the rest are veined. For playing on metal strings, a thimble is used (put on the finger), and the veins are pinched with the fingers. (Zither appeared at the turn of the XII-XIII centuries, but became especially popular in the XV-XVI centuries.

3. Music in Ancient Russia

Art of the Middle Ages for all its diversity, it had some common features that were determined by its place in life, in the system of forms of social consciousness, specific practical purpose and the nature of its ideological functions. Art, like medieval science, morality, philosophy, was placed at the service of religion and was supposed to help strengthen its authority and power over the consciousness of people, clarify and promote the dogmas of the Christian doctrine. His role thus turned out to be applied and subordinate. It was considered only as one of the constituent parts of that elaborate, magnificent ritual action, which is the worship of the Christian church. Outside the liturgical ritual, art was recognized as sinful and harmful to human souls.

Church chant was associated with the cult more closely than all other arts. Divine services could be performed without icons, outside the luxurious temple premises, in a simple and austere setting. The priests did not have to wear lush, ornate vestments. But singing was an integral part of the prayer ritual already in the most ancient Christian communities, which rejected all luxury and adornment.

The leading role in singing belonged to the text, the melody was supposed only to facilitate the perception of "divine words". This requirement also determined the very nature of church singing. It was supposed to be performed in one voice, in unison and without the accompaniment of instruments. The admission of musical instruments to worship, as well as the development of choral polyphony in Catholic church music of the period late middle ages , was a violation of the strict ascetic norms of Christian art, which was forced to adapt to the new demands of the time at the cost of certain concessions and compromises. It is known that the Catholic authorities subsequently repeatedly raised the question of returning to the chaste simplicity of the Gregorian cantus planus. The Eastern Christian Church retained the tradition of unison singing a cappella until the middle of the 17th century, and in some countries even longer, the use of musical instruments remains forbidden in it to this day. It was supposed to perform church chants simply and restrainedly, without excessive expression, since only such singing brings the praying person closer to God.

The church, which in the Middle Ages had a monopoly in the field of enlightenment and education, was the only owner of musical writing and the means of teaching music. Medieval non-negotiable writing, a variety of which were Russian banners, was intended only for recording church chants. Church singing, which developed within the framework of the monophonic tradition, remained in Russia until the second half of the 17th century the only type of written musical art based on developed theoretical premises and a certain amount of compositional and technical rules.

Art of the Middle Ages characterized by great persistence of traditions. One of the consequences of this is the weak expression of the personal, individual principle. From the outside, this is manifested in the fact that the bulk of the works of art remained anonymous. The creators of these works, as a rule, did not put signatures under them or indicated their authorship in a hidden, encrypted way. The finished, finished text did not remain inviolable. During correspondence, he could be subject to changes, reductions, or, conversely, expansion by insertions borrowed from another source. The scribe was not a mechanical copyist, but, to a certain extent, a co-author, who gave his own interpretation to what was written, made his own comments, freely combined different pieces of the text. As a result, the work became essentially a product of collective creativity, and in order to reveal its original basis under many later layers, very often very great efforts are required.

The medieval composer dealt with an established set of melodic formulas, which he combined and combined, following certain compositional rules and regulations. The whole, complete melody could also become a formula. The so-called "singing like", which was especially widespread in the first centuries of Russian singing art, consisted in the fact that some of the tunes accepted in church use became models for chanting various liturgical texts. The melodic formula, which serves as the main structural unit of the znamenny chant, received the name of the melody, and the very method of creating a melody based on the concatenation and modified repetition of individual melodies is usually defined as a variant song.

Despite the strict rules that the medieval artist had to obey, and the need for strict adherence to the canonized models, the possibility of personal creativity was not completely ruled out. But it was expressed not in the rejection of the dominant traditions and the approval of new aesthetic principles, but in the skill of subtle, detailed nuances, freedom and flexibility in the use of general typical schemes. In music, such a rethinking of constant melodic formulas was achieved by means of intonation nuances. Replacing some intervals with others, small changes in the bend of the melodic line, rearrangements and displacement of rhythmic accents changed the expressive structure of the melody without violating its basic structure. Some of these changes took root in practice and acquired a traditional character. Gradually accumulating, they led to the formation of local varieties, schools and individual manners with their own distinctive characteristics.

4. Folk and professional andart

The Christian Church, both in the West and in the East, striving to monopolize all means of influencing the human psyche and put them entirely at the service of its goals, was sharply hostile to traditional folk games, songs and dances, declared them sinful, turning them away from true faith and piety ... Medieval religious sermons and teachings are full of harsh denunciations of those who indulge in these destructive entertainments, and threaten them with damnation and eternal torment in the next world. One of the reasons for such an intolerant attitude towards folk art was its connection with pagan beliefs and rituals that continued to live among the masses of the population for a long time after the adoption of Christianity. In Russian religious and teaching literature, singing songs, dancing and playing instruments are usually compared with "idolatry", "idol sacrifices" and prayers offered by the "cursed god" paganism .

But all these denunciations and prohibitions could not eradicate the love of their native art among the people. Traditional types of folk art continued to live and develop, widely existing in various strata of society. Folklore in its diverse forms and manifestations captured a wider sphere of life, and its share in the artistic culture of the middle ages was more significant than in the modern art system. Folklore filled the vacuum created by the lack of written forms of secular musical creativity. The folk song, the art of folk "gamers" - performers on musical instruments - were widespread not only among the working people of the lower strata, but also in the upper strata of society, up to the prince's court.

Under the influence of the folk song, the characteristic intonation structure of Russian church singing was formed, which over time moved away from Byzantine samples, developing its own nationally unique melodic forms. On the other hand, in the figurative-poetic and musical structure of the Russian folk song, traces of the influence of religious Christian views and the stylistics of church art can be found, which has been repeatedly pointed out by researchers-folklorists.

Collectivity is one of the main features of folklore. As a rule, works of folk art are not associated with the personality of any one author and are considered the property, if not of the entire people, then of a certain social group, corporation (for example, a military squad epos) or a territorial community. This does not exclude the participation of personal creativity in their creation and execution.

In music Ancient Rus there were no figures that could be compared with Palestrina, Orlando Lasso or Schütz. They could not advance in the conditions of that time with the prevailing way of life and worldview. The significance of the ancient Russian musical heritage is determined not by the bold daring of individual outstanding personalities, but by the general, holistic character, which captures the courageous, stern and restrained appearance of the people who created it. The masters of the Russian Middle Ages, without violating the rigid norms and restrictions prescribed by the canon, achieved in their work remarkable aesthetic perfection, richness and brightness of colors in combination with the depth and power of expression. Many examples of this art with its high and peculiar beauty belong to the greatest manifestations of the national artistic genius.

Sources of

https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_Music

http://medmus.ru/

http://www.webkursovik.ru/kartgotrab.asp?id=-49105

http://arsl.ru/?page=27

http://www.letopis.info/themes/music/rannjaja_muziyka ..

http://ivanikov.narod.ru/page/page7.html

http://www.medieval-age.ru/peacelife/art/myzykanarusi.html

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The term "early music" refers to the period from 457 AD. (the date of the fall of the Great Roman Empire) and until the middle of the 18th century (the end of the Baroque era). It refers exclusively to the European musical tradition.

This era is characterized by diversity: cultural-ethnic and socio-political. Europe is a multitude of distinct peoples with their own musical heritage. All aspects of social life are directed by the Church. And music is no exception: the first 10 centuries of the development of "early music" were characterized by the wide influence and participation of the Roman Catholic clergy. Musical works of pagan and any non-Christian orientation are suppressed in all possible ways.

Religious chants

In the era of the Middle Ages, several separate periods are distinguished. Music of the early Middle Ages, from 457 AD until 800 AD, wears most often exclusively It is liturgical chants or Gregorian chant. They are named in honor of Pope Gregory I, who, according to the legends that have survived to this day, was the author of the first works of this type. The Gregorian chant was originally monophonic and was nothing more than a chant of prayer texts in Latin (less often Greek or Old Church Slavonic). The authorship of most of the works by historians has not yet been established. Gregorian singing became widespread a century later and remained the most popular musical form until the reign of Charlemagne.

Development of polyphony

Charles I ascended the French throne in 768 AD, marking the beginning of a new milestone in European history in general and music in particular. The Christian Church undertook the unification of the directions of Gregorian singing existing at that time and the creation of uniform norms of the liturgy.

At the same time, the phenomenon of polyphonic music was born, in which two or more voices sounded instead of one. If the ancient form of polyphony assumed exclusively octave stress, that is, the parallel sound of two voices, then medieval polyphony is the sound of voices with intervals from unison to fourth. And vivid examples of such music were organums of the 9th century and diaphonies of the 10-12th centuries.

Musical notation

The most important feature of the music of the Middle Ages is the first conscious attempts to write musical scores. The scores begin to be written using Latin letters, they acquire a linear form. Guido Aretinsky, who lived at the turn of the 10th and 11th centuries and is considered the founder of musical notation, finally formalized the system of alphabetic and irregular notation.

Guido Aretinsky

Medieval music schools

Starting from the 12th century, separate musical schools were formed. Thus, the music of the School of Saint Martial from the French city of Limoges was characterized by one main theme combined with a fast two-part organum. The School of Notre Dame Cathedral, founded by the monks Leonin and Perotin, was famous for its outstanding polyphonic works. The Spanish School of Santiago de Compostela has become a haven for pilgrims who dedicated themselves to music and became famous medieval composers. The works of the English school, in particular the Worcester Fragments, have survived thanks to the Old Hall Manuscript, the most complete collection of medieval English music.

Secular music of the Middle Ages

In addition to church music, which had a priority position in the Middle Ages, secular music also developed. This includes the works of itinerant music poets: trouvers, minstrels, minnesingers. It was they who served as the starting point for the birth

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Books

• Illustrated history of art. Architecture, sculpture, painting, music, V. Lubke. Lifetime edition. St. Petersburg, 1884. Published by A.S.Suvorin. Edition with 134 figures. Owner's binding with leather spine and corners. Bandage spine. The preservation is good. ...
• Illustrated history of art. Architecture, sculpture, painting, music (for schools, self-study and information), Lubke. Lifetime edition. St. Petersburg, 1884. Published by A.S.Suvorin. Book with 134 drawings. Typographic cover. The preservation is good. Small tears on the cover. Richly illustrated ...