Intercultural communication as a phenomenon of cultural life. Basic concepts of intercultural communication

As the world becomes more culturally complex and pluralistic, so does the importance of topics related to intercultural communication. The ability to communicate across cultural barriers affects our lives not only at work or school, but also at home, with family and in a play environment. Can we somehow improve the skills of such communication? [Matsumoto "Psychology and Culture"

Intercultural and cross-cultural communication has become the topic of many studies.

Scientists have proposed many definitions of communication, including intercultural. Porter and Samovar, for example, give communication the following definition: "That which occurs whenever someone reacts to the behavior or consequences of another person's behavior." In another work, they define communication as what happens “whenever a behavior is ascribed some meaning.” We define communication simply as the exchange of knowledge, ideas, thoughts, concepts (concepts) and emotions that occurs between people.

Intercultural communication has a number of features that make it more complex, demanding and difficult than intracultural or interpersonal communication. To understand these special issues, it is necessary to gain a more complete understanding of the basic components of the communication process.

The components of the communication process can be differentiated in several ways. One of them is to define the modes through which communication can take place. People communicate using two modalities: verbal and non-verbal, which we have described in the previous two chapters.

The verbal mode includes a language with its unique set of phonemes, morphemes and vocabulary, syntax and grammar, phonology, semantics and pragmatics. Verbal language is a semantic system containing these components, which ensures the exchange of ideas, thoughts and feelings.

Non-verbal modality includes all non-linguistic behavior, including facial expressions, gaze and eye contact, vocal intonations and paralinguistic cues, interpersonal space, gestures, body posture and pauses. As we saw in the previous chapter, non-verbal behavior is multidimensional; it serves many purposes beyond direct communication (remember Ekman and Friesen's classification of non-verbal actions as illustrations, regulators, emblems, as well as gestures, adapters, and emotions). Quite a few studies, both within the United States and in other cultures, have demonstrated the relatively greater importance of non-verbal behavior compared to verbal language in communicating messages.

Another way to look at the communication process is to describe it in terms of encoding and decoding. Coding refers to the process by which people choose, consciously or unconsciously, a particular modality and method by which they can create and send a message to someone. Although, as adults, we do not think about this process all the time, as a child we had to learn the rules of syntax, grammar, pragmatics and phonology in order to skillfully encode information. Likewise, we had to learn the rules governing the messages that are sent non-verbally. The person who encodes and transmits messages is often referred to in the research literature as the encoder or sender.

Decoding is the process by which a person receives signals from an encoder and translates these signals into meaningful messages. Just as “adequate” coding depends on understanding and using the rules of verbal and non-verbal behavior, “adequate” decoding depends on these same rules so that messages are interpreted in the way they are intended to be conveyed. In the scientific literature, the person who decodes a message is often referred to as the decoder or recipient. Of course, communication is not a one-way street, where one person only encodes or sends messages, and the other only decodes them. Communication is an extremely complex process of encoding and decoding, occurring in rapid succession and overlapping each other so that they occur almost simultaneously. It is this quick exchange of messages, when people become alternately senders and recipients, that makes the study of communication so difficult, but rewarding.

In addition to the two main modes - verbal language and non-verbal behavior - and two main processes - coding and decoding - communication has a number of other components.

Signals are specific words and actions that are spoken and performed during communication, that is, specific verbal language and non-verbal behavior that are encoded when a message is sent. For example, a facial expression can be a signal that is encoded along with a specific message. Other signals can be specific words or phrases, body posture, or voice intonation.

Messages are the meaning that is embedded in and extracted from signals. It includes knowledge, ideas, concepts, thoughts, or emotions that the encoders intend to convey and the decoders interpret. Signals are observable behaviors that don't necessarily have any intrinsic meaning; messages are the meanings we attribute to these behavioral cues.

Finally, channels are specific sensory modalities through which signals are transmitted and messages, such as images or sounds, are recognized. The most widely used communication channels are visual (we see facial expressions, body posture, etc.) and auditory (we hear words, voice intonation, etc.). However, communication uses all other senses, including touch, smell and taste.

Thus, the communication process can be described as an operation in which the sender encodes the message as a set of signals. These signals are transmitted through many channels open and functioning at the recipient. The receiver decodes the signals to interpret the messages. Once the message is interpreted, the decoder becomes the encoder, sending back its own message using the same process. In this case, the one who originally encoded the message becomes the decoding one. It is this complex exchange process, with changing roles and message encoding and decoding, that constitutes the communication process.

Culture has a pervasive and profound influence on the processes of verbal and non-verbal encoding and decoding. Culture has a profound effect on verbal language. Each language is a unique system of symbols that shows what the culture considers important. Remember, certain words may exist in some languages ​​but not others, reflecting differences in how cultures symbolize the world. Different cultures and languages ​​often use referent words referring to the self and the environment in different ways; for example, the English pronouns I and you may be replaced by designations of role, position, and status. Counting systems are another example of cultural influences on verbal language. Many languages ​​have numerals that represent the characteristics of the objects being recalculated, and different languages ​​may have different base systems for conveying numeric relations. Culture affects not only the vocabulary of a language, but also its function or pragmatics.

According to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, culture also affects the structure of thought processes. Although some research has challenged this hypothesis over the years, it has received significant support in terms of the impact of language grammar and syntax on thinking. Research on bilingualism has also demonstrated a close relationship between culture and language, assuming that speakers of several languages ​​allow different cultural systems to enter their minds when they speak the respective language.

Culture also influences many non-verbal actions. While cross-cultural studies have shown that facial expressions of anger, contempt, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise are pan-cultural, we also know that cultures differ in the rules for expressing feelings that govern the use of these universal expressions. In addition, we know that there are many cultural differences in gestures, gaze and visual attention, interpersonal space, body posture, and vocal intonation and speech characteristics.

Culture influences the decoding process in several ways. As in the case of cultural rules for decoding concerning the perception and interpretation of emotions, we learn from early childhood the rules that help us decipher the cultural code inherent in speech and in all other aspects of interaction. These decoding rules are formed in conjunction with the rules for the expression of emotion or encoding and are a natural part of the development of communication skills.

In many contexts, the term cross-cultural communication is used synonymously with the term intercultural communication. In the context of communication, there is no difference between these terms; however, there is an important difference between cross-cultural and intercultural research. Cross-cultural research refers to the comparison of two or more cultures on some variable of interest (for example, clarifying the differences between cultures A and B in the expression of emotions). Intercultural research refers to the study of the interaction between representatives of two specific cultures (for example, it clarifies the differences in how representatives of cultures A and B express emotions when they communicate with people from cultures B and L, respectively).

Most research in the field of intercultural communication is cross-cultural, not intercultural. As such, they do not always provide data that are directly applicable to an intercultural episode. Much of the cross-cultural research is about cultural differences in communication styles, but not necessarily how people communicate with members of some other culture. For example, no matter how many cross-cultural studies we do comparing Americans and Japanese people, they will not give us information about how representatives of these two cultures communicate with each other during interaction.

For research to be intercultural, it must compare intercultural data with intracultural data; only such differences can be attributed to intercultural communication as such. A study comparing the intercultural communication of Americans and Japanese should assess how Americans and Japanese interact with both Americans and Japanese. Only the difference between intracultural and intercultural interactions tells us what is unique for intercultural interaction.

In intracultural communication, the participants in the interaction implicitly use the same basic rules. When people communicate within boundaries defined by accepted ground rules, they can focus on the content of the messages being exchanged. They encode and decode messages using the same cultural code. When we communicate within common cultural boundaries, we implicitly believe that the other person is a representative of our culture or that they are behaving in a socially acceptable way. We can assume that the individual is "well" socialized into our culture and make value judgments about the process and the person's ability to participate in this generally accepted process.

But even in intracultural situations, when we interact with people who go beyond what is considered “normal” or “socially acceptable,” we often exhibit negative reactions. We have difficulty interpreting the signals these people are trying to send because they do not conform to the cultural packaging rules that we expect from our culture. We react negatively, because we have learned that such actions are unacceptable, and we can make negative dispositional attributions, considering a person “bad”, “stupid”, “badly brought up” or “devoid of common sense”.

Negative stereotypes can easily form even in intracultural communication situations. Because our cultural filters and ethnocentrism generate a set of expectations about other people, communicating with people whose behavior does not match our expectations often leads to negative attributions. Such unforeseen events require substantive processing, which is strongly influenced by the induced emotion. If the induced emotion is negative, then it will contribute to attributions relative to other people with negative valence. These attributions form the core of the stereotype of such people, reinforcing the system of values ​​and expectations that we initially adhered to. These processes are common even during episodes of intracultural communication.

One of the characteristics that distinguishes intercultural from intracultural communication is uncertainty or ambiguity about the basic rules through which the interaction will take place. Due to the wide and deep influence of culture on all aspects of the communication process, we cannot be sure that the rules used by two representatives of different cultures are identical. This ambiguity is inherent in both verbal and non-verbal behavior, both in the mode of encoding and decoding: how to package messages, turning them into signals that will be interpreted in accordance with our intentions, and how to open the packages in accordance with the original intentions of the sender ...

Participants in intercultural interaction often use verbal language when communicating, which is not native to at least one of them, and sometimes both. Thus, the meaning of words is inherent in uncertainty. Cultural differences in the use of non-verbal channels add to this ambiguity. Decoders cannot be sure, unlike intracultural situations, that they will interpret signals and messages in accordance with the original intent of the encoder.

Research by Gudikunsga and his colleagues: behavior under different levels of uncertainty

Gudikunst and his colleagues have documented how interaction participants try to reduce uncertainty in intercultural interactions, at least during the first encounters. This study was based on the work of Berger and Calabrese, who suggested that one of the main problems with strangers during first encounters is reducing uncertainty and increasing predictability in their own actions and in the behavior of another person.

Gudikunst and Nishida tested 100 American and 100 Japanese participants in one of four experimental conditions:

* cultural similarity (intracultural communication) and the similarity of attitudes;

* cultural difference (intercultural communication) and the similarity of attitudes;

* cultural similarity and dissimilarity of attitudes;

* cultural difference and dissimilarity of attitudes.

In order for communication to take place within the framework of cultural similarity or cultural difference, the experimenters brought the participant together with a stranger, either from his own or from another culture. The similarity and dissimilarity of attitudes were varied by describing similar or dissimilar attitudes when introducing a stranger. For each participant, researchers assessed intention to open up, intention to ask questions, non-verbal expressions of sympathy, attributive confidence, and interpersonal attraction. The results showed that the intention to ask questions, the intention to open up, and non-verbal expressions of sympathy were higher in the context of cultural difference than in the context of cultural similarity.

Uncertainty reduction theory predicts that these techniques will be used more widely in communication contexts with higher levels of uncertainty. Gudikunst, Sodetani, and Sonoda expanded these findings to include representatives of different ethnic groups and demonstrate that differences in ethnicity and stage of relationships are also associated with differences in communication behavior aimed at reducing uncertainty.

Comparative assessment of intercultural and intracultural communication

In a later study, Gudikunst and Shapiro asked students at a major university to describe their perceptions of episodes of communication with other students. In one part of the study, 303 students reported intracultural and intercultural episodes; in another, 725 students reported intra-ethnic and inter-ethnic communication episodes. Seven variables were assessed in each communication episode.

The researchers found that students rated intracultural episodes higher than intercultural episodes in communication quality and positive expectations, and intercultural episodes higher in anxiety, uncertainty, and social identity. Similarly, students rated intra-ethnic encounters higher in quality and satisfaction, and inter-ethnic encounters higher in terms of anxiety and uncertainty. These data support the idea that episodes of intercultural communication are marked by a higher degree of uncertainty compared to intracultural encounters.

Intercultural communication is like reading a coded message: the first step is to decipher the code (reduce uncertainty), the second is to interpret the decrypted content and react to it.

Reducing uncertainty is one of the main objectives of the initial intercultural encounter. Without reducing uncertainty, the participants in the interaction cannot begin to properly process the content of signals and interpret messages, since uncertainty makes messages ambiguous in nature. If uncertainty is reduced, then the participants in the interaction can focus their attention on the content of the signals and messages that they exchange. Cross-cultural communication is like reading a coded message: the first step is to decipher the code (reduce uncertainty), the second is to interpret the decoded content and react to it.

Ecology of means of communication.

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  The definition of intercultural communication given by A. P. Sadokhin: "Intercultural communication is a set of various forms of relations and communication between individuals and groups belonging to different cultures."

  According to TB Frick's definition: "Intercultural communication is communication between people who represent different cultures." I.V. Denisov and A.P. Eremenko give a similar definition, highlighting "interethnic communication" as "communication between persons representing different peoples (ethnic groups)."

  1. Information conveyed on a non-verbal level presents the greatest difficulties for interpretation by members of another culture.

  2. To achieve understanding in communication, it is necessary to train participants in intercultural interaction in active listening.

  3. It is necessary to be able to foresee and prevent possible errors in communication with representatives of different cultures, otherwise the planned intercultural contact may break down due to the negative impression produced.

  One should also bear in mind the problems of verbal communication and the forms and ways of symbolizing communication in this regard.

  History

  The concept of intercultural communication was introduced in the 1950s by the American cultural anthropologist Edward Hall as part of a program he developed for the adaptation of American diplomats and business people abroad on the instructions of the US Department of State. G. Treiger and E. Hall designated by this concept “ the ideal goal that a person should strive for in his desire to adapt to the world around him as best and efficiently as possible».

  Initially, the so-called. Was used to describe intercultural communication. classical understanding of culture as a more or less stable system of conscious and unconscious rules, norms, values, structures, artifacts that make up national or ethnic culture... In this case, we are talking mainly about stereotyping in the understanding of representatives of different cultures.

  At the present time, the so-called. dynamic understanding of culture as a way of life and a system of behavior, norms, values, etc., of any social group (for example, urban culture, culture of generations, culture of the organization). A dynamic understanding of culture focuses on the possibilities of changing the cultural system depending on a particular social situation.

  The importance of research on intercultural communication is increasing in connection with the processes of globalization, including the increasingly intense migration.

  As a scientific discipline, intercultural communication is in the stage of formation and has two characteristic features: applied character (the goal is to facilitate communication between representatives of different cultures, reduce conflict potential) and interdisciplinarity.

  Types of communication

  Types of communication: By the number of participants and the distance between them:

  • interpersonal (small group, including family) - the minimum number of participants, direct relationships. The nature of communication depends on the reduction or increase of the distance.
  • intergroup / intragroup - the distance is greater, as is the number of participants in communication
  • professional (in business)
  • mass (through mass media)
  • intercultural (between different cultures, including all previous ones, brought to the surface of life by electronic means of communication)

  With a functional approach:

  • informative
  • communicative
  • affective-evaluative (feelings, opinions)
  • recreational (information for recreation, in a playful way)
  • persuasive (between people of different statuses, ideological attitudes)
  • ritual (traditions, customs)
  • non-verbal

  non-verbal means of communication:

  • kinesics (facial expressions, eyes, gestures, posture)
  • prosody (voice and intonation means)
  • takeshika (touching)
  • sensing (sensory perception, manifestation of sensations)
  • proxemics (spatial structure of communication)
  • chronology (temporal structure of communication)

  non-verbal communication functions:

  • non-verbal communication complements verbal
  • non-verbal communication contradicts verbal
    • non-verbal communication replaces verbal
    • non-verbal communication serves as a regulator of verbal

  Basic concepts

  In different cultures

  Greetings in a number of countries have a national flavor. Handshaking is the main form of greeting. But, in some countries it is not customary to shake hands with women, and therefore wait for a woman to hold out her hand to you. In France and the Mediterranean countries, cheek kisses are common, in Latin America - hugs. Two palms pressed together in front of the chest is an Indian national greeting.

  About the attitude towards people of a different age. Elders must be respected everywhere. They should be the first to start a conversation. When older people enter the room, stand up. General advice when accepting unfamiliar food is to eat what is offered to you, and do not ask what it is. Cut your portion into small pieces so it can easily enter your stomach.

  If you have serious enough concerns, then, under a convenient pretext, refuse to accept the offered food, without offending those who offer it to you.

  In many countries, religion influences business life, including daily routines and work months and days. Learn everything there is to know about religion in this case and avoid discussion. Know and remember that materially presented Buddhist images are sacred: you cannot, for example, step on the threshold in Thailand - good spirits dwell under it; never distract the attention of the person facing Mecca; do not take photographs or touch religious items without permission.

  Everywhere you should have a business card with you, which indicates: the name of your organization, your position, titles. Abbreviations should not be used. In Southeast Asia, Africa, and the Middle East, always hold out a business card with your right hand. In Japan, it is served with both hands, holding the right side to the partner.

  Beware of using gestures that are familiar to you, say `V` (victory sign). In other countries, they can have a completely different and even very indecent meaning.

  The strong traits in the stereotype of the German national character are well known: hard work, diligence, punctuality, rationality, thrift, orderliness, pedantry, prudence, the desire for orderliness. But in the 1960s, their use in advertising for Lufthansa drew protests, as the stereotype was used by many in the perception of the organization of mass destruction carried out by the Nazis. As a result, this advertisement was removed, and since then this stereotype of the German national character is no longer used in advertising for Lufthansa.

  see also

  • Ancient contacts between China and the Mediterranean

  Notes (edit)

  Literature

  In Russian

  • Bergelson M. B. Intercultural communication // Krugosvet.
  • Bibler V.S. From science teaching to the logic of culture. - 1991. - Politizdat, 1991 .-- 417 p. - ISBN 5-250-00739-2.
  • Vikulova L.G., Sharunov A.I. Fundamentals of Communication Theory: Workshop. - M.: ACT, AST Moscow, East - West, 2008 .-- 320 p. - ISBN 978-5-17-055078-4, ISBN 978-5-9713-8965-1, ISBN 978-5-478-00764-5.
  • Grushevitskaya T.G., Popkov V.D., Sadokhin A.P. Fundamentals of intercultural communication: Textbook for universities / Ed. A.P. Sadokhin. - M.: UNITY-DANA, 2003. - 20,000 copies. - ISBN 5-238-00359-5.
  • Grushevitskaya T.G., Sadokhin A.P. Culturology: Textbook. - M.: Unity-Dana, 2010 .-- 683 p. - ISBN 978-5-238-01058-8.
  • E. L. Golovleva Basics of intercultural communication. - Rostov n / a: Phoenix, 2008 .-- 222 p. - (Higher education). - ISBN 978-5-222-124.
  • Denisova I. V., Eremenko A. P. Types of intercultural communication // IV International Student Electronic Scientific Conference "Student Scientific Forum" February 15 - March 31, 2012. - 2012.
  • Milner B.Z. Organization theory / 2nd ed., Rev. and additional .. - M.: Infra-M, 2000. - 480 p. - (Higher education).
  • Moshnyaga P.A. Bilingual education in Japan: intercultural communication vs multiculturalism // Information humanitarian portal “Knowledge. Understanding. Skill ". - 2010. - № 4 - Culturology.
  • Persikova T.N. Intercultural Communication and Corporate Culture: Textbook. - 2002 .-- M.: Logos, 2007.
  • Sadokhin A.P. Introduction to Intercultural Communication. - M.: Higher school, 2005 .-- 310 p. - 3000 copies. - ISBN 978-5-406-02451-5.
  • Starygina G.M. Intercultural Communication: Study Guide. - Blagoveshchensk: Amur state. un-t, 2014 .-- 112 p.
  • Terin V.P. Mass communication: a study of the experience of the West. Moscow: Institute of Sociology RAS, 1999, 170 p. IBSN 5-89697-036-6.

  Intercultural communication- this is communication and communication between representatives of different cultures, which implies both direct contacts between people and their communities, and indirect forms of communication (including language, speech, writing, electronic communication).

  In fact, intercultural communication is always interpersonal communication in a special context, when one participant discovers the cultural difference of the other. Such communication raises many problems associated with differences in expectations and prejudices, which are inherent in every person and, of course, different in different cultures. Signs of cross-cultural differences can be interpreted as differences between verbal and non-verbal codes in a specific communication context. Moreover, each participant in cultural contact has his own system of rules that function so that messages sent and received can be encoded and decoded. The process of interpretation is also influenced by the age, gender, profession, social status of the communicants, their tolerance, entrepreneurial spirit, and personal experience.

  Forms of intercultural communication

  There are four main forms of intercultural communication - direct, indirect, mediated and direct.

  When direct communication the information is addressed by the sender directly to the recipient and can be carried out both orally and in writing. In this case, the greatest effect is achieved through oral speech, combining verbal and non-verbal means.

  IN indirect communication which is predominantly one-sided in nature, information sources are works of literature and art, radio messages, television broadcasts, publications in newspapers and magazines, etc.

  Mediated and direct forms of communication differ in the presence or absence of an intermediate link acting as an intermediary between partners. A person or a technical device can act as an intermediary. Communication mediated by technical means can remain direct (telephone conversation, e-mail correspondence), but this excludes the possibility of using non-verbal means.

  You can study communication processes between different cultural groups (large and small) or between individuals. Most of the studies conducted at the group level are in the nature of cultural-anthropological and sociological studies, which consider a cultural group as a collective whole and try to understand it holistically.

  The final subject of intercultural communication is the person himself. It is people who directly interact with each other. At the same time, voluntarily or not, these people are part of certain social groups with their own cultural characteristics. In direct communication, representatives of different cultures must overcome not only language barriers, but also barriers that are non-linguistic in nature and reflect the ethno-national and socio-cultural specifics of the perception of the world around them, national peculiarities of thinking.

  It should be borne in mind that the process of communication and interpretation of messages in interpersonal communication, in addition to cultural differences, is influenced by the age, gender, profession, social status of the communicant.

  Intercultural communication in small groups takes many forms: planned negotiations, for example between representatives of government agencies or business organizations of countries with different cultures; unplanned communication, such as when traveling, at conferences, or at academic seminars.

  For effective communication in a small group, the communicator is forced to adapt to the cultural values ​​and beliefs of other cultural members of the group. Often in an intercultural group, the participants in the discussion show stereotypes of their own culture not intentionally, but by force of habit, and their behavior, as well as the course of the discussion, is influenced by many cultural factors.

  In cases where intercultural communication is carried out between large groups of people, ethnic and national levels of communication are distinguished.

  The ethnic level is observed between local ethnic groups, ethno-linguistic and other communities. In modern ethnology, an ethnos is considered to be a set of people historically formed in a certain territory, characterized by common cultural characteristics, self-awareness and joint economic activities.

  In the interaction of cultures at the ethnic level, two tendencies are clearly manifested. Mutual assimilation of cultural elements, on the one hand, contributes to integration processes, mutual cultural exchange and enrichment, and on the other hand, it is accompanied by an increase in ethnic identity, the desire to consolidate ethnic specificity.

  The national level of intercultural communication is possible if there is national unity. National unity emerges both on a mono-ethnic and a multi-ethnic basis through common economic activity and state-political association. This is complemented by the formation of a corresponding culture. National culture is a set of traditions, norms, values ​​and rules of behavior common to representatives of one nation, state. Since the nation embraces a state-organized society, and society is characterized by stratification and social structure, the concept of

  National culture encompasses subcultures of social groups that ethnic culture may not have. Ethnic cultures can be part of the national, as well as the culture of representatives of other nations. Thus, the American national culture is extremely heterogeneous; it includes Irish, Italian, German, Chinese, Japanese, Mexican and other cultures.

  One of the characteristic features of modern societies is a powerful and large-scale flow of information exchange between people. All spheres of our life, work, rest are permeated with communications. F. Lutens to determine the main categories of the concept of "communication" proposes to consider a continuum, at one pole of which is the most complex, modern communication technology, and at the other pole - simple non-verbal communication. The middle link of this continuum reflects interpersonal communications [Lutens, 1999, p. 72]. Thus, communication is a socially conditioned process of transmission and perception of information, both in interpersonal and mass communication through different channels, using various verbal and non-verbal communication means.

  Correlation of the concepts of intercultural and interethnic communication

  In the scientific literature, you can find numerous references to intercultural differences, features of intercultural communication. Intercultural communication in a broad sense is understood as communication between carriers of any different cultures. In cases where the term "intercultural communication" is used, communication between representatives of different subcultures within one society is also considered (for example, between youth and "bureaucracy", which can be presented as a subculture of a significant type of activity - public administration in society). ...

  The widespread use and dissemination in the Russian-language scientific literature of the concepts of "intercultural communication", "intercultural communication", "interethnic communication" makes it necessary to clarify the substantive aspects of these phrases, based on the position of the authors on this issue. Indeed, the English word communication does not completely coincide with the concept of communication. If in communication “what people want to say is important, then in communication it is important that“ they think or feel at the moment ”[Vezhbitskaya, 2011, p. 416-417].

  “Intercultural communication is a process of communication between bearers of different cultures, combining all forms of social interaction based on the representation of information content in them. Intercultural communication is a special type of interaction between cultures, the specificity of which is that its content is mediated by information processes - the receipt, accumulation and transmission (broadcast) of information. " [Klimov, 2012, p. 916].

  The problem of the correlation of the considered concepts is reflected in the title of one of the sections of the textbook on ethnopsychology by T.G. Stefanenko, which is called “Russian Communication and Western Communication”. The author draws attention to the exceptional place that communication occupies in Russian culture as one of the types of human activity [Stefanenko, 2014].

  When studying intercultural interaction at the community level, the structural and functional characteristics of cultures are highlighted, and their comparative analysis is carried out. The focus of researchers is on such cultural phenomena as traditions, customs, rituals, religion, social institutions of marriage and family, rights, etc. ... At the interpersonal level of intercultural communication, verbal and non-verbal means, models of behavior, rules and norms, social roles, as well as representations, learned concepts, ideas, beliefs that allow a person to identify with their own culture are studied.

  Interethnic communication is a real process of interaction between two subjects belonging to different ethnic, cultural and other social groups (a person-person, a person and a group of people, one group on the other), in which actions caused by thoughts, feelings, emotions, experiences of one subject are addressed to another, fixing, reflecting and refracting in his consciousness in the form of a response. Thus, the characteristics of interpersonal interaction are mainly assigned to communication; and additional meaning is assigned to communication - information exchange in society.

  The process of interethnic communication is complex and multifaceted and has its own patterns and characteristics. Interethnic communication is reduced to verbal and non-verbal communication, in which verbal communication is usually accompanied by non-verbal communication. The following relationship is possible between verbal and non-verbal communication:

  • 1. Non-verbal communication is consistent with the verbal, without causing cognitive dissonance for both parties involved in the communication process. In this case, we can say that both the spoken language and the sign language, both the content of the transmitted information and the socio-psychological context, are equally understandable and accessible.
  • 2. Complete mismatch between non-verbal and verbal components of ethnic communication. Non-verbal communication (positive) contradicts verbal communication (negative). Another option is possible, when the verbal message (positive) does not correspond to the non-verbal message (negative).
  • 3. Culturally conditioned and accepted in a particular society the discrepancy between the content of the verbal message and the socially acceptable type of response verbal message, which does not correspond in meaning to the content of the message. For example, in England to the question: "Isn't the weather good today?", The answer is implied: "Yes, of course, the weather is excellent!", Regardless of what it really is, since you should not transfer your mood to the weather, problems, difficulties, etc. In China: to the question "Have you already eaten today?" it is supposed to answer in the affirmative and grateful, regardless of whether you actually had time to eat.

  Interethnic communication also performs a number of important functions: communicative, interactive and perceptual. At the level of communicative communication, information is exchanged between representatives of different nationalities, ideas, feelings, states, etc. are exchanged. This process is complex, as it depends on the national and cultural values, attitudes, lifestyle of peoples. Knowledge of the language and other sign systems plays an important role. The interactive side of communication is the interaction of people based on joint activities. In the process of joint labor activity, differences in work skills, habits, norms, national experience of work organization, the nature and form of communication, gender differences, etc. can be manifested. The perceptual side of communication reflects the peculiarities of perception and understanding of each other by people of different nationalities. Thus, in the process of interethnic communication, ethnocultural specificity is manifested at the communicative, interactive and perceptual levels.

  In the context of intercultural interaction, generalized characteristics are considered that allow taking into account the peculiarities of culture, which are reflected in all its elements and are manifested in people's behavior. G. Triandis introduced the concept of "cultural syndrome", which means a set of values, beliefs, attitudes, models and norms of behavior that distinguish one group of people from another. He described three cultural syndromes: individualism - collectivism, simplicity - complexity, and openness - closeness. G. Hofstede, on the basis of a large-scale empirical cross-cultural study, in addition to collectivism - individualism, identifies three more characteristics, according to which significant differences were obtained in the studied cultures: masculinity - femininity, uncertainty avoidance and power distance.

  U. and K. Stefan, based on an analysis of the results of a number of studies, highlight the main characteristics of cultures proposed by various authors.

  • - individualism - collectivism (orientation towards individual or group goals);
  • - the degree of tolerance for deviations from cultural norms;
  • - the degree of avoidance of uncertainty and, accordingly, the need for formal rules;
  • - masculinity - femininity, i.e. cultural appreciation of qualities considered stereotypical for men and women, and the steppe of promoting traditional gender roles;
  • - assessment of the nature of a human being as "good", "bad" or "funny";
  • - the complexity of culture, the degree of its differentiation;
  • - emotional control, the degree of allowed emotional expressiveness;
  • - contact - distance, i.e. distances and touches permissible during communication;
  • - the distance between the individual and the "power", the degree of inequality between superior and inferior;
  • - high context - low context, i.e. maximization - minimization of differences in behavior depending on the context of communication;
  • - the dichotomy of man - nature (the degree of man's domination over nature, his subordination to nature or life in harmony with nature).

  Thus, for effective intercultural communication, it is necessary to understand the basic functions performed in the communication process; taking into account the cultural characteristics that are manifested in the behavior of people.

  In our opinion, special attention should be paid to the cultural and ethnic characteristics of communication and to consider examples of the use of verbal and non-verbal means in various communication situations.

  Features of verbal communication

  Each language is a unique system of symbols that reflects what is most significant in a given culture. Culture affects not only the vocabulary of a language, but also its function. Researchers have found cultural differences in many aspects of communication, including intragroup and intergroup communication, the use of apologies, frank confessions, compliments, criticism, etc. According to the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, culture also affects the structure of thought processes. Despite criticism of this hypothesis and a number of studies that do not reveal such a connection, in recent years it has received support with regard to the influence of grammar and language syntax on thinking [Matsumoto, 2008, p. 416]. In addition, research on bilingualism has also shown a close relationship between culture and language, finding that bilinguals admit different cultural systems into their minds depending on which language they are currently using. Thus, a study of the emotional state of Russian-Uzbek bilinguals when they perceive situations containing cultural cognitive dissonance showed that, depending on the language used, their emotional state and readiness for activity differed [Govorin, Mikhalyuk, Ryzhenko, 2012].

  As examples, let us consider the most frequently used speech formulas adopted in communication among representatives of different cultures. Let's pay attention to what is accepted and what is not customary to say in different cultures (questions, greetings, wishes, parting words, topics of conversation, forms of addresses, etc.), depending on the time of year, day, type of activity, on the status of the communicators people, etc.

  Greetings. Forms of greeting depend a lot on who you are greeting. In Russian etiquette, the youngest is the first to greet, it is considered a sign of poor upbringing if the person did not say hello. Among the North Caucasian peoples, on the contrary, the oldest is the first to greet, and it is absolutely unforgivable to greet the youngest first, this is perceived as a manifestation of bad manners, intemperance. But the oldest man, as a rule, greets a woman first.

  Questions. The most common question in situations of modern intercultural interaction: How are you? (How are you?) However, in the Caucasus, the question “How are you?” Is not always appropriate, especially if it is asked by a stranger. In a Muslim society, a foreigner cannot address any question or request to a woman, this is considered indecent. Among Ossetians, one of the forms of verbal greeting is “May your day be bright”, and in Chechnya, the form of greeting “Come free!” Is widespread. international etiquette of communication, you should avoid issues that are related to a person's age, personal problems, surgical operations, court cases, etc.

  Wishes may differ and vary depending on the time of year, day, type of activity, on the status of people communicating. For example, from the time of year: in the Caucasus - in the spring, in the midst of work, you can hear one wish - "To see the sprouts of your labor", and in the fall: "To have enough not only for your family, but also for your enemies." From the type of activity: in many cultures, the traveler must be wished "Bon voyage!" At the festive table among many Caucasian peoples one can hear, in the midst of fun, such a wish: "Yes, reward us, the Almighty, with great awards, but for our little work!"

  Polite contact forms. Each culture offers its own set of certain words, phrases, questions, phrases, most often used in speech, etc. In many cultures, it is customary to emphasize a polite address to the addressee, the word "please" is present in all cases when people need to give up their conveniences for the sake of other people: "Please don't block the door!", "Thank you for not smoking!", "Thank you for clearing up after yourself!" [Ter-Minasova, p. 112].

  Remarks. In most cultures, any form of warning to an older person is unacceptable. If they want to make a comment, they do it in an indirect form, observing certain requirements: to criticize in private, to speak impersonally, specifically, in a calm voice, correctly. At the same time, every culture, of course, has its own invectives - forms of insults and swearing.

  Topics and ways to keep the conversation going. Forbidden topics are those that contradict the laws of morality and notions of decency in a given culture. An important point in effective intercultural communication is adherence to acceptable conversation topics in communication. So, in the Middle East, one should not touch upon religious topics, discuss intimate and personal problems. Observing international communication etiquette, the following topics should be avoided in the discussion: bad news, belonging to a particular religion, political extremes, health conditions, mistakes of other people, etc.

  The above examples of the features of verbal communication in different cultures show the variety of existing forms, sometimes opposite to each other. It should be noted that effective interaction cannot be reduced solely to a set of different verbal constructs and possession of them. In many situations, not only knowledge of verbal “blanks” is required, but also a deep, inclusive, empathic understanding of the content and meaning of what has been said. Thus, the problem of studying the features of interethnic and intercultural verbal communication can be considered at the following levels: what to say, how to correctly formulate what we want to ask; how to say depending on gender, age, situation, etc.; how a given meaning or concept lives in the reality of the world of the language being studied.

  1. What to say, how to correctly formulate what we want to ask.

  The peculiarity of national cultures to correlate action and status was first studied by E. Hall, who proposed to divide cultures into high-context and low-context ones. To understand the specifics of intercultural communication, this model found its further development in the studies of G. Triandis [Triandis, 2007, p. 231-234]. In low-context cultures, people rely on verbal communication. The ability to formulate a thought, accurately convey meaning, speak directly, avoid ambiguity is appreciated. Americans are primarily focused on content, on clarity of statements. What to say (speech content) mainly characterizes low-context cultures. In the process of verbal communication, they prefer to express themselves clearly and clearly, they seek to be the first to put forward the main argument for or against. Direct, honest conversation is an indicator of honesty, while speaking in hints is associated with dishonesty and insecurity. Origin, belonging to a certain noble family are not grounds for career growth and advancement. It is customary to call everything by its proper name, if they say "no" - it means - no.

  2. How to tell depending on gender, age, situation, etc.

  How to say (communication context) mainly characterizes high-context cultures. Restraint and ambiguity are the most important components of the communication process. To understand what is said aloud and what is actually meant are completely different things. Courtesy is more important than truthfulness, restraint is necessary in the manifestation of negative emotions, and ambiguity helps to avoid a harsh "no" answer. Language “coding” is widely used. The meaning of the word "yes" can vary from real agreement to refusal, since it is not customary to say "no". The same remark, depending on the context and tone, can have a completely opposite meaning and meaning. Straightforwardness and openness are perceived with caution, and trusting relationships are established after careful examination of the entire context of social relations. In high-context cultures, communication relies more on knowledge of the context - the physical environment, status relationships, previous communication, non-verbal communication becomes more important. During the discussion, the Japanese avoid the word "no", they are vaguely expressed, trying not to disturb the harmony of relations. In the Japanese language there is a term "isshin denshin", which literally translates as "traditional mental telepathy." This term reflects implicit or tacit communication highly valued by Japanese culture. In the Korean language there is a similar term "i-sim-jong-sim", which is considered one of the highest forms of communication in Korea.

  3. How a given meaning or concept lives in the reality of the world of the language being studied.

  In situations of intercultural communication, a large number of difficulties arise when translating information from one language to another. The main reason for this kind of linguistic inconsistency is often the lack of an exact equivalent of the concept itself. For example, in Russian culture there is no whiskey or ale, which means that there are no corresponding words. In English there are no words "pancakes", "borscht", "vodka", "maybe", "feast". Researchers note the high emotionality of the Russian language, its richness in verbs that reflect the state of a person: to be sad, yearning, depressed, indignant, ashamed, admiring, admiring, admiring, etc. In the Russian language there are many sincere words and expressions (cherished, beloved, darling, darling, darling, my light, etc.), which are not translated into other languages ​​of the world, moreover, when trying to translate, they lose their semantic load.

  The concept of intercultural communication, its varieties. Taking into account intercultural characteristics at the level of verbal and non-verbal communication, as well as at the level of customs and traditions.

  Business culture concept. Classification of business culture models (Hofstede, Hall).

  INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION,communication, in the context of significant culturally determined differences in the communicative competence of its participants, that these differences significantly affect the success or failure of a communicative event... In this case, communicative competence means knowledge of symbolic systems used in communication and the rules of their functioning, as well as principles of communication... Intercultural communication is characterized by the fact that its participants in direct contact use special language variants and discursive strategies that are different from those that they use when communicating within the same culture. The frequently used term "cross-cultural communication" usually refers to the study of some specific phenomenon in two or more cultures and has the added meaning of comparing the communicative competence of communicating representatives of different cultures.

  Intercultural communication- communication between representatives of different human cultures (personal contacts between people, less often - indirect forms of communication (such as writing) and mass communication). The features of intercultural communication are studied at an interdisciplinary level and within the framework of such sciences as cultural studies, psychology, linguistics, ethnology, anthropology, sociology, each of which uses its own approaches to their study.

  It is believed that this concept was introduced in the 1950s by the American cultural anthropologist Edward T. Hall as part of the program he developed for the US State Department to adapt American diplomats and businessmen to other countries ...

  Initially, the so-called. Was used to describe intercultural communication. classic understanding of culture more or less a stable system of conscious and unconscious rules, norms, values, structures, artifacts - national or ethnic culture.

  Nowadays, the so-called. dynamic understanding of culture as a way of life and a system of behavior, norms, values, etc., of any social group (for example, urban culture, culture of generations, culture of the organization). Dynamic concept of culture does not imply a strict stability of the cultural system, it can change and be modified to a certain extent depending on the social situation.

  As a scientific discipline, intercultural communication is in the stage of formation and has two characteristic features: applied character (the goal is to facilitate communication between representatives of different cultures, reduce conflict potential) and interdisciplinarity.

  Research on intercultural communication has recently become increasingly important in connection with the processes of globalization and intensive migration.

  Communication types:

  1. By the number of participants and distant relationships between them:

  a. interpersonal (2 people, family) - the minimum number of participants, close relationships. The nature of development is a narrowing or widening of the distance.

  b. intergroup / intragroup - the distances are greater, as is the number of participants

  c. professional (in business)

  d. mass (through an intermediary - media, television)

  e. intercultural (between different cultures, includes all the previous)

  2. With a functional approach:

  a. informative

  b. affective-evaluative (feelings, opinions)

  c. recreational (information for recreation, in a playful way)

  d. persuasive (between people of different statuses, ideological attitudes)

  e. ritual (various traditions, customs)

  3. By language use:

  a. verbal

  b. non-verbal

  3. Functions of non-verbal communication 1.nonverbal communication complements verbal 2.nonverbal communication contradicts verbal 3.nonverbal communication replaces verbal 4.nonverbal communication serves as a regulator of verbal

  Non-verbal communication : 1.kinesics (facial expressions, gaze, gestures, posture) 2.prosody (vocal and intonation means) 3.takesics (touch) 4.sensory (sensory perception, manifestation of sensations) 5.proxemics (spatial structure of communication) 6. chronology ( temporal structure of communication)

  Basic concepts

  Japanese scientist Matsumoto: “In the field of social psychology and communication, the term interpersonal communication usually refers to communication that occurs between people from the same cultural environment; in this sense, it is synonymous with the term intracultural communication. A.P. Sadokhin's definition of intercultural communication: "Intercultural communication is a set of various forms of relations and communication between individuals and groups belonging to different cultures" The term culture is of Latin origin and it appeared in the era of Roman antiquity. This word comes from the verb "сolere", which meant "cultivation", "processing," leaving. In this sense, it was used by the Roman politician Marcus Porcius Cato (234-149 BC), who wrote the treatise "De agri cultura". The starting point in the formation of scientific ideas about culture is considered to be the treatise "Tusculan Conversations" by the Roman orator and philosopher Mark Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC), who used this agronomic term metaphorically, i.e. in a different, figurative sense.

  Greetings in a number of countries have a national flavor. Handshaking is the main form of greeting. But in some countries it is not customary to shake hands with women, and therefore wait for a woman to hold out her hand to you. In France and the Mediterranean countries, cheek kisses are common, in Latin America - hugs. Two palms pressed together in front of the chest is an Indian national greeting.

  · About the attitude towards people of a different age. Elders must be respected everywhere. They should be the first to start a conversation. When older people enter the room, stand up.

  · General advice when accepting unfamiliar food - eat what you are offered, and do not ask what it is. Cut your portion into small pieces so it can easily enter your stomach.

  · In many countries, business is influenced by religion - the daily routine and work months and days. Find out more about the religion of a given country, but do not enter into discussions on such topics. Know and remember that Buddhist images are sacred: you cannot step on the threshold in Thailand - good spirits live under it; never distract a person facing Mecca; do not take photographs or touch religious items without permission.

  · Everywhere you should have a business card with you, which indicates: the name of your organization, your position, titles. Abbreviations should not be used. In Southeast Asia, Africa, and the Middle East, always hold out a business card with your right hand. In Japan, it is served with both hands, with the right side to the partner.

  · Beware of using gestures familiar to you, say `V` (sign of victory). In other countries, they may have a completely different, not always decent, meaning.

  The strengths of the German national character are well known: hard work, diligence, punctuality, rationality, thrift, orderliness, pedantry, seriousness, prudence, the desire for orderliness.

  Term "intercultural communication»Implies interaction between representatives of different ages, nationalities, cultures, religions, etc. It is a process of exchanging cultural characteristics of different nationalities through verbal and non-verbal language.

  The business culture model proposed G. Hofstead, includes the following indicators:

  · power distance(low to high) - the degree to which people with little or no power agree that power in society is unevenly distributed;

  · collectivism - individualism. Individualism characterizes a society in which the connection between individuals is insignificant: it is assumed that first of all everyone cares about himself and the family; collectivism characterizes a society in which people from birth grow and develop in strong, close-knit groups; these groups care and protect “theirs” throughout their lives in exchange for unconditional loyalty;

  · femininity - masculinity... Masculinity is a characteristic feature of a society in which the sex roles of men and women are clearly separated, that is, men are tough, aggressive, focused on material success and victory in the external environment, and women are modest, gentle and focused on ensuring the quality of life and moral comfort in the family; femininity is a characteristic feature of a society in which the difference in gender roles is insignificant, men and women can be equally focused on material success and on ensuring the quality of life;

  · avoidance of uncertainty(from weak to strong) - the degree of discomfort, anxiety, fear that people belonging to a given society experience in front of unknown or uncertain circumstances.

  An essential advantage of the Hofsteed model is that the poles of each characteristic are described in detail, and the characteristics themselves are expressed in numerical terms. This makes it possible to establish the degree of difference between the business cultures of countries and regions, to predict the areas of possible occurrence of problems in the interaction of businessmen or managers of these countries.

  A. Hall distinguishes, in turn, the following cultures:

  1))) monochronic(culture of the USA and the countries of Northern Europe.). At each certain period of time, people are busy with one thing, they strictly follow plans and schedules, agreements in order to avoid wasting time. Punctuality is important to them. it low-context culture: whenever people enter into communication, they need detailed information about everything that happens. These are Societies where there are practically no informal information networks. These cultures are less homogeneous, interpersonal contacts in them are strictly differentiated, representatives of these cultures do not mix personal relationships with work and other aspects of everyday life..

  These are cultures in which most of the information is contained in words, people openly express their desires and intentions, not assuming that this can be understood from the communication situation. At the same time, the greatest importance is attached to speech, as well as discussion of details.

  2))) polychronous(countries of Southern Europe, Latin America, the Middle East). People do several things at the same time, and relationships between people are more important to them than plans and schedules. These are highly contextual cultures (they change little over time, therefore, when interacting with the outside world, the same stimulus causes the same reaction. These are cultures in which much is determined by the hierarchy and status, the external Sid of the premises, their location and placement. cultures use a lot of hints, hidden meanings, figurative expressions, etc.

  The role of non-verbal communication in intercultural communication:

  1. The same gesture can have completely different meanings in different cultures.

  2. A gesture may mean nothing and make no sense to the person who sees it.

  3. A gesture has practically the same meaning in different cultures, and its interpretation rarely causes problems in intercultural communication.

  Time.

  If Western culture clearly measures time and lateness, for example, it is considered a fault (remember "Accuracy is the courtesy of kings"), then among the Arabs, in Latin America and in some Asian countries, lateness will not surprise anyone. Moreover, if you want to be dealt with seriously enough, you need to spend some time in random (ritual) conversations. Not only that, you should not be in a hurry, as cultural conflict may arise: "Arabs see drinking coffee and talking as 'doing something', while Americans see it as a waste of time." Accordingly, the Arabs view the exact timing as a personal grievance. Or zfiopers look at what takes a long time to be done as a very prestigious business: the longer, the better, respectively.

  Space.

  A Hispanic and a European normally speak at different distances. Now try to put them side by side. As the Latino tries to stay at the distance he is accustomed to, the European may feel like an invasion of his personal space. He will immediately try to move away. In response, the Latin American will try to get closer again, which from the European's point of view will be perceived as a manifestation of aggression.

  An American, going out into a courtyard in Latin America, feels walled up, because he does not even have a fence in his homeland.

  George W. Bush and M. Gorbachev met in 1989, not on anyone's territory, but on warships located near Malta, which introduced a certain emancipation in relations, each was outside the usual environment and regardless of the conventions of one side or the other.

  Accordingly, different cultures use different non-verbal communication. For example, in America's "black" culture, it is considered ill-mannered to look a teacher directly in the eye. There are also various options for the manifestation of resentment: a special gait, a special eye movement. At the same time, a person of a different culture will not even notice this.

  Different views of different peoples and hierarchical relationships. China and Japan respect them very much, while the Americans strive to demonstrate equality. By the way, American instructions even require that Americans take pictures with Asian representatives only while sitting, so that their dominance in height is not visible.

  Western businessmen are trying to conduct their negotiations in confidential atmosphere, in a personal meeting. In Arab culture, there are other people in the room, and when you ask to speak in a different environment, the Arab will only bring his head closer to you. The contradictions of such different views can easily lead to conflict.

  There is also a difference in views on values. An example can be given. You are sailing on a ship with your wife, child and mother. The ship began to sink. You can only help one person. Who will it be? In Western culture, 60% will save a child, 40% will save a wife. And no one will save the mother. In oriental culture, 100% will save their mother. This is because it is believed: you will always have the opportunity to marry again, to have children again, but you will never have another mother. By the way, the Ukrainian address to the mother with "you" also probably has a special origin.

  Different cultures have different rules for sharing information. A representative of an oriental culture, which is more closed, can make a decision for a long time, as, for example, the Japanese or the Chinese do. The Japanese, by the way, have another curious feature that often misleads many businessmen, they fundamentally cannot say categorically "no". Carefully coming up with all sorts of courteous phrases, they will try not even to object.