Taoism(Chinese Tao Jia or Tao Jiao - literally "School of Tao"), the doctrine of Tao exists as a philosophy and doctrine, as a religion and as one of the main religious and philosophical schools in China. Taoism took shape in the middle of the first millennium BC based on the beliefs and traditions that existed in China at that time. According to modern concepts of the philosophy of Taoism, naturalism and elements of religious mysticism, primitive dialectics are inherent to some extent.

At the beginning of our era, Taoism took shape as a developed religion. By the 12th century, the Tao Zang, a collection of Taoist literature, was created in China. The main goal of the adherents of Taoism is to achieve unity with the fundamental principle of the world - Tao, as well as through alchemy and psychophysical exercises (yoga) to gain immortality. The attitude to Taoism, as well as to all other religions and philosophical systems, was different; in certain historical periods, Taoism enjoyed the patronage of the authorities. There are followers of Taoism in China today.

Briefly about the development of Taoism in N. e. In 34-156 A.D. e. Zhang Doaling leaves for Western China, compiles a list of spirits and becomes the first Taoist "Heavenly Master" with many thousands of disciples following the path of the "Five Measures of Rice". In 166, the Han emperor Huang made a sacrifice to Lao Tzu and the Buddha. In 184, against the Han dynasty, there was an unsuccessful peasant revolt of the "yellow bands" led by the Taoists, who demanded the beginning of a millennium of universal peace. They claimed that the Eastern Church at this time had 360,000 followers and a constituent organization led by the three Zhang brothers.

Taoism reaches its heyday in 220-618. in a politically divided China. Around 300, the Taoist sect of the "Sacred Jewel" introduces cult rituals that have become widespread. In the years 364-370. Taoist sect "Highest purity", or "Mo-Shan", focuses on meditation in Taoism, and in 504 all sects were banned except "Mo-Shan".

Taoism flourished during the Tang Dynasty in 618-907 and extended to Tibet, Kashmir and Japan. Around 1016, the first Taoist canon was printed. In 1281, Emperor Kublai Khan burns the Taoist canon "Tao Tsang". In 1436 the Taoist canon reaches its current volume of 1,120 volumes.

About Lao Tzu and his followers.

Lao Tzu(known as Li Er), considered the founder of Taoism, the author of the ancient Chinese treatise "Lao Tzu" (ancient name - "Tao Te Ching", VI-V centuries BC), a canonical composition of Taoism. The main concept of Taoism is Tao, which is metaphysically likened to water (pliability and irresistibility). The way of action arising from the Tao is non-action (wu wei); compliance, humility, abandonment of desires and struggle.

Lao Tzu was born in 604 BC. e. in the Ku county of the Zhou kingdom, nicknamed Li Er and also named Li Po Yang. According to the legend then circulating, he was old already at birth, as a result of which he was named Lao Tzu, that is, "Old Son". For a long time he was a censor during the Zhou dynasty, but seeing that this dynasty was falling into decline, he left the country. At the request of the official who guarded the passage at the border, he wrote a book (mainly poetic texts) "Tao Te Ching" containing more than 5,000 Chinese characters.

The founder of Taoism is considered by historians to be Lao Tzu, but Lao Tzu only revived the ancient traditions that prevailed during the reign of Emperor Huang Di (2693-2547 BC). Therefore, Taoism in China is also called the teaching of Huang Lao. Prominent adherents of Taoism were Yang Zhu, Sun Jian, Yin Wen, Chuang Tzu, who lived in the III-IV centuries BC. According to Yang Zhu, observance of the natural laws of life (Tao) allows a person to “keep his nature intact,” and, according to Sun Jian and Yin Wen, it is also necessary for a person to acquire wisdom and knowledge of the truth. Sun Jian and Yin Wen believed that the human soul consists of the finest material particles - "jing qi" (in Buddhism from the dharmas), which come and go depending on the "purity" or "clogging" of the human thinking organ ("xin").

Chuang Tzu (about 369-286 BC) called thinking "a mirror of heaven and earth, a mirror of the darkness of things", substantiated the ideological basis of the theory of "non-action" which became the source of the formation of the religion of Taoism at the turn of the new era. Chuang Tzu is considered the alleged author of the eponymous treatise "Chuang Tzu" composed in the form of parables, novellas and dialogues directed against the teachings of Confucius and Mo Tzu. According to him opinion, man opposed himself to his nature, in which Tao is embodied, having built a "civilization" based on violence - a state, culture and class morality based on inequality .

Basic concepts of Taoism.

Treatise Lao Tzu "Tao Te Ching" is the foundation of Taoism. The literal translation of Taoism - "School of Tao" speaks of the treatise "Tao Te Ching" as a textbook of life dedicated to its laws arising from its naturalness. Practically in the Tao Te Ching, the middle path, the least polluted and natural human path of virtue, is set forth. The treatise is compiled in the form of examples-teachings on the correct and natural course of life, with instructions on what deviations from the natural path lead to, disrupting the correct rhythm of life. One of the translations of the treatise "Tao Te Ching" ("Book of the Way and Virtue") speaks of the role of the right choice in it - virtue and non-action, that is, about the correct life path of a person - virtue and non-interference in its natural course. Usually deviations from the correct path of life are caused by the desire of humanoid beings for enrichment, ownership of property and power, human greed (greed), and as a result of this unreasonable interference in its course with attempts to subordinate the laws of life to selfish aspirations.

Bearing in mind the life path of a person and the content of the treatise, his name "Tao Te Ching" can be translated as " Properties of life", In which life (Tao is the way of life), that is, the formation and their coexistence in the world, and the properties are like the laws of natural life (Te and Tao, expressed in their interaction).

The first paragraph of "Tao Te Ching" sets out the main general idea of ​​all the teachings presented in this book. It is difficult for an unprepared person to understand its meaning, since it reflects the entire content of the treatise.

This paragraph reads: “The Tao that can be expressed in words is not the eternal Tao, (and) the name given to it is not (is the name of) the eternal. That which cannot be named is the mother of all things. I always look into what is “not” (immaterial) in order to contemplate miracles (Tao) and look into what “is” (material) in order to contemplate its boundaries. And "is not" and "is" are one and the same, from which all things arise, but differ in name. This identity is wonderful - it is the door to all miracles. "

Note: the contemplation of this wonderful Tao is possible at the eighth stage of yoga, therefore the idea of ​​it cannot be described. How Lao Tzu reached him, he does not describe, although there are indications in the content of the treatise that he was engaged in meditation. And Zarathushtra, for example, the bright kingdom in all its splendor and splendor was revealed by Ahuramazda.

The meaning of what was said is that the eternal Tao has neither outlines nor form, and, therefore, it cannot be called by any name (give a name). Although the eternal Tao is not material, but heaven and earth, the entire universe, arises from it, that is, everything that can be given a name is a function of Tao. Tao embraces everything and abides in everything. It is in the grass, in the stool and in the urine. To prevent a person from becoming attached to the immaterial and material, Lao Tzu says "Both the immaterial and the material are one and the same."

The characteristic of Tao given by Lao Tzu is as follows: Tao is an eternal, unchanging, unknowable, formless beginning-source, substance, or the root cause of the material world of objects (in Prakriti in Hinduism), it is simpler, all these characteristics can be expressed in one and all-encompassing concept of God. At the same time, it should be noted that the concept of God is inaccessible for the bulk of people. Some characteristics of Tao and Te, referring to the "Tao Te Ching", are given below.

Tao and te.

Tao(Chinese, literally - path), the central concept of Taoism and one of the most important categories in classical philosophy. Originally Tao meant "way", "road", then it was applied in philosophy to designate the "way" of nature, its laws. Together with these meanings, Tao also acquired the meaning of a person's life path, turning into the concept of "ethical norm" ("Tao-de") of behavior.

The term Tao, like all other ancient terms, is ambiguous and to all its initial ambiguity on the way to the modern period, it is supplemented by the ideas of many people. Tao can be translated as - road, path, path, this is one of its meanings of Tao, as well as meanings - teaching, truth, reality, nature of "I", absolute. Tao is the true path, or the natural (cause - effect), natural natural path of the movement of life, the path of the appearance and destruction of all things or their evolution and involution. There are also other translated meanings, and understandings of this term, depending on the field of application, Tao, one of the main categories of Chinese philosophy. In Confucianism, Tao is the path of a perfect ruler, the path of moral improvement, a set of moral and ethical norms. In Taoism, Tao is the laws of all things, generating and organizing the beginning of life. The world is the "embodiment" of Tao. The sage, according to the treatise of Lao Tzu, "Tao Te Ching" following the Tao, in many cases refuses useless goal-setting activity (wu wei, "non-doing") and through non-action attains unity with nature and perfection. In the tradition of the Book of Changes (I Ching), as well as in the Tao Te Ching, Tao is represented by the regularity of the alternation of the Yin-Yang forces.

Tao is the creative force of the World-Cosmos, its inexhaustible source of the entire movement of life and life itself, It - a source of education for all things in the world, which interact on the basis of their basic properties, follow the natural path of life transformations.

According to the Taoists, the highest goal of a person is to cognize Tao, follow it and merge with it with the help of special exercises (as in Hinduism - yoga, union, or merging with God). Note: in Taoism, as well as in Hinduism, Buddhism, they have developed their own methods of breathing exercises, meditation, rules of behavior for prolonging life - longevity and other techniques.

“Tao is eternal and nameless. Although it is insignificant, but no one in the World-Cosmos can subjugate it to himself. " If those in power observe the Tao, then life will become normal, calm and prosperous, but this will not happen, and, consequently, the entire system of lies and violence will collapse, but few ordinary people will survive.

Te, the properties of each thing existing in the material world, together with the functions-qualities. Te, these are the properties of Tao, which follow the general law of cause and effect inherent in all things in the world. If a person does not artificially interfere and does not harm the purposeful course of life, then Lao Tzu calls such an attitude the deepest Te. Tao incarnating in the world in de ( His incarnation in the world is considered a descent from the highest to the lowest) passes into the natural qualities of things. With regard to a person de, these are the properties or essence of a person, his character-quality. The deepest de is the ability of a person to use the cause-and-effect laws of life (Tao).

“To create and educate things; while creating, not to possess what is created; setting in motion, do not make efforts to this; in leadership, not to consider yourself a master - that is what is called the deepest Te. " This in the "Tao Te Ching" (as in all other religions) condemns pride , because such an attitude of a person to the people around him and the world is based on the opposition of "I" (myself) to the expedient (natural) course of things. Man's pride manifests itself in the fact that he, due to ignorance and lust, tries to subordinate the laws of the Universe (Tao and Te) to himself, while he himself is a part of creation.

Lao Tzu's activities left their mark on his treatise, and sections on the art of government were also included in it. The treatise contains many instructive philosophical discourses-examples about life. For example R, " The best emperor is the one about whom the ethnos knows only that he exists". In the example, you can change the rank of the emperor to any modern one - president, minister, any official. It is enough to understand the deep meaning of this saying in order to understand life. Although in Taoism, at the level of the gods, the emperor is also revered (great is Tao, heaven, earth and also the Emperor), this is not surprising, since. modern people have much more revered "gods" among lay officials and clergy ... The basis of the line or principle of Lao Tzu's teaching is the naturalness of human behavior and the unnaturalness of the protrusion of one's self - human pride-arrogance - is condemned. “He who has risen on tiptoe cannot stand for long. Whoever takes great strides cannot walk for long. Who exposes himself to the light does not shine. Who praises himself will not gain glory... Whoever attacks does not succeed. He who exalts himself cannot become the eldest among others. Based on the Tao, all this is called unnecessary desire and useless behavior. They are hated by all beings. Hence, an individual who possesses Tao does not do this "... Nor does a reasonable person do this, which cannot be said about politicians and other officials of state systems.

Yin and yang.

The origin of Yin-Yang is recited in Chapter 3 of Huainan Tzu. Clean and light air, or ether, rose and formed the sky, heavy and muddy descended and formed the earth. From combining particles (or seeds) jing of heaven and earth, Yin and Yang were formed. From Yin and Yang, in turn, "four seasons" are born ( sy shi) and then the darkness of things, that is, everything that exists. Thus, the initial division of the whole into two opposites occurred as a result of the movement of the ether. Although this division has taken place, in the World-Cosmos everything is in harmony or agreement, since everything follows Tao, that is, the established path or law in accordance with the natural properties of things. The celestial bodies move in fixed orbits, the seasons, day and night replace each other at a fixed time. Movement or life is orderly and straightforward or harmonious, only an unreasonable person tries to resist these properties.

Homogeneous Yin masses are associated with heavy air, and Yang masses with light, therefore, following the Tao and naturalness, cold air descends, and warm air rises (mixing along the way) and this happens until they naturally balance or acquire symmetry ( according to Taoism). Upon finding equilibrium, the movement stops and stabilizes.

Having at the basis of all life two opposites or sources of movement (life, this is the movement of a living being from birth to death and back - simultaneous evolution and involution) Lao Tzu speaks of the naturalness of life or its symmetry. In a normal, healthy body, the two opposite forces (or energies), Yin and Yang, are balanced - balanced (symmetrical) and this state is natural. With an incorrect ratio of Yin and Yang, diseases begin in the body, and deviations in human behavior (if he does not follow the Tao), in actions of violation. Therefore, the treatise "Tao Te Ching" speaks about the middle way of life - natural and virtuous.

Yin, symbolizes inertia (analogue - tamas in Hinduism), Yang symbolizes activity (rajas in Hinduism), symmetry symbolizes naturalness, norm and decency in human behavior - virtue (sattva in Hinduism). Buddhism also speaks of the middle way of life.

Lao Tzu condemned deviations in behavior caused by an excess of negative Yin in a person - "The good ones strive for agreement, and the unkind ones seek extortion." “Merciful Emperor, clever Emperor is restrained in extortions, in his own consumption he is moderate - he has everything. The greedy Emperor, the cruel ruler does not leave the lower ones alone, plunders his ethnos in order to satisfy his desires that do not know the limit, and then he loses the symmetry of heaven and the good of the earth. " “They saved up gold (currently - stolen wealth), neglected honesty, each set their own laws. Divided for enrichment at the expense of people and theft ”and other sayings or sayings. Isn't that kind of division that took place in the USSR and is taking place now in the new states that emerged on its basis?

Everything in the world follows Yin-Yang while being in constant whirling ... Circulation in "Huainan Tzu", as in Buddhism, is a symbol of perpetual motion - life changes and combinations of yin / yang ratios. There is a constant transformation in the world - the change of things from Yin to Yang and vice versa. Nothing remains unchanged for a moment - one change causes another, everything arises, changes and perishes non-stop under the influence of the other and by itself influencing it - this is the main principle of the material world and its infinity. Everything in this world responds to any impact with change and interaction, these are the principles of Tao, which basically remains unchanged and omnipresent in Yin and Yang.

Yin and Yang - the division of the world into two opposite principles, which are created for returning to the fundamental principle through death or merging into nothing, which is not or “is not” as stated at the beginning of the treatise.

Religious aspect of Taoism.

There are two aspects to Taoism - philosophical and religious. Taoism developed on the basis of popular beliefs, myths, etc., and just as in Zoroastrianism, the religious aspect was added to the philosophical aspect. According to the ideas of the Chinese religious system, the world is ruled by the Heavenly Jade Emperor. As the Chinese ancient legend or myth says, to which Lao Tzu was later introduced. A long, long time ago, the Chinese emperor and his wife prayed for the grant of an heir to them. One day, the wife saw in a dream Lao Tzu, who was sitting astride a dragon and holding a baby in his arms. Soon she gave birth to a son who was distinguished by mercy and virtue. Having occupied the royal throne, he ceded it to one of the ministers, and he himself became a hermit, healed the sick and looked for a way to immortality. He became the Jade Emperor - the lord of hell and heaven.

In China, he is considered the human embodiment of Heaven, his father Jingde personified the Sun, and his mother Baosheng personified the Moon. Plants and flowers are a symbol of their life together.

The pantheon of religious Taoism includes almost all the deities of ancient Chinese religions. There are also many saints in Taoism, like gods in Hinduism (for all occasions), among whom there is a certain division into several groups. The Saints earthly living in seclusion in the mountains; living on heaven and surpassing all others; hermits who have abandoned earthly goods, but have not yet achieved immortality; the Saints who live on magical islands in the East Sea; demons - disembodied spirits. Note: the climatic conditions of some regions of China and India made it possible to live in a hermit, therefore the fact that the rich went into hermits was not uncommon, we know the names of such founders of new teachings from history (Buddhism, Jainism). In addition to these historical data, there are many beautiful poetic legends in China and India, much more than the ancient Greek and ancient Roman ones available to our readers.

Animals, like all other peoples, were revered in China. This is confirmed by the belief in "celestial animals" - turtles descended from a celestial turtle, tigers - from one of the stars. According to the given example and the ideas that existed in ancient China, the sky observes everything that happens on earth, and the fact that the origin of animals is connected with the sky.

The stars are also deified. In Chinese religion and astronomy, there is a solar zodiac, according to which the sky is divided into twelve parts, named after real and mythical animals: mouse, bull, tiger, hare, snake, horse, sheep, monkey, chicken, dog, pig and dragon. The heavenly space is also called accordingly: the western part is the area of ​​the white tiger, the eastern part is the area of ​​the azure dragon, etc.

Gods.

Guanyun- goddess of mercy, protector of children.

Lei Kung- the god of thunder. Depicted as a man - a bird.

Mara- the god of temptation. Seducer.

Matsu-Po- the queen of heaven.

The progenitors of China- the divine couple Fu Xi (emperor) and Nu Wa. Fu Xi is the inventor of the calendar, music, the first graphic symbols, and marriage. His wife Nui Wa - fixing the firmament and creation of the human race from clay .

Tien Mu- goddess of lightning.

Show Hsing- god of longevity.

Chu Jung= god of fire.

Eight immortals.

Chung-Li Chuan- the ability to make transformations.

Lu Tung-ping- supernatural power.

Chang Kuo-lao- the personification of supernatural powers in magic (magic).

Han Hsiang-tsu- power over the growth of flowers.

Lan Tsai-ho- patroness of florists.

Lee Tieh-kuai- the patron saint of beggars.

Ho Hsien-ku- household assistant.

Tsao Kuo-chu- the patron saint of theatrical art.

Not always knowing the causes of natural phenomena, Taoists considered all unusual phenomena in nature to be a violation of symmetry and a bad omen ... They mistakenly attributed the rainbow to them, while in Judaism this is a good omen. Such "unusual" phenomena are usually the result of abrupt changes in nature (revolutionary) due to the lack of a timely smooth transition. The consequences of such phenomena are most often unfavorable for living beings, therefore, they were considered a bad omen in Taoism.

Confucianism .

About Confucius.

Confucius(Kun-tzu) (about 551-479 BC), ancient Chinese thinker and founder of Confucianism. Confucius was born into a poor aristocratic family of descendants of the royal Shang family, in the warlike state of Lu. The main views of Confucius are set out in 20 collections of short sayings "Lunyu" ("Conversations and Judgments").

In 532 BC. e. Confucius got married, he has a son and two daughters. Around 531 BC e. he becomes the keeper of the grain barns, in 501 he becomes the first minister of the kingdom of Lu, and in 497, after a quarrel with the ruler of Lu, he resigns. In 497-484 he traveled to different states, collecting students and trying to give advice to the rulers. Around 484 he returned to Lu, taught and possibly at this time wrote the history of Lu from 722 ("Chun Qiu", "Spring and Autumn"). Dies 479 BC e. leaving behind 20 collections of short sayings "Lunyu".

Confucianism, one of the leading ideological currents and ethical and political doctrine in ancient China. The foundations of Confucianism were laid in the 6th century BC. e. Confucius. It is believed that the doctrine expressed the interests of power, since Confucius is a hereditary aristocrat. In the doctrine, the power of the ruler (sovereign) was declared sacred, bestowed by heaven, and the division of people into higher and lower ones was a universal law or an established order. However, it should be noted that everything that concerned people and their division into higher and lower related not to their social status and positions, but to their behavior.

According to Confucianism, the fate of a person is determined by “heaven” and the fact that people are divided into “noble” and “low” cannot be changed. Therefore, the younger must meekly obey the older, the lower - the higher. Note: In all states, this division and such "orders" existed and exist today and it was established by force, therefore a person cannot change anything in the world. And everyone decides for himself whether to follow officials and authorities with low moral qualities or people with normal moral qualities.

The views of the founder of the Confucius teachings were set forth by his followers in the book "Lunyu" ("Conversations and Judgments"). At its core, Confucianism is an ethical and political doctrine dedicated to the moral rules of behavior for people, mostly officials, politicians, and emperors. It was based on Tao (naturally correct forms of behavior) or rituals-habits that had developed by this time in China. At the heart of Confucianism is the veneration of ancient wisdom. Before the unification of China in 221 BC. e. there were many philosophical movements in China, the most famous of which were Taoism and Confucianism.

According to Confucius, we live in a universe that is arranged and exists in accordance with the laws and order established in it. Note: this order cannot simply be mechanically transferred to the living world created by man, but only by studying the world and observing life, all thinkers in ancient times believed so. In accordance with these and his own ideas, Confucius divided people into noble - virtuous and decent, and low - unable to follow the rules of human morality. As soon as a person realizes this the middle path of virtue and humanity and follows him, he stands on the "heavenly path - Tao" - the true and natural human path. Confucius taught such a command - human and humane morality and culture of behavior. In Hinduism, this principle of virtue is sattva, in Taoism - Tao, in Buddhism and Zoroastrianism - the right path or deeds of a person.

Some sayings of Confucius that characterize his teaching.

Confucius said “I am sad when morality does not improve when they do not understand what they are studying, and knowing about virtue (philanthropy, high morality) is not able to follow it and cannot correct bad deeds. "

Precept rulers : "When ruling the kingdom, you need to take business more seriously, be truthful, respect people, save money in expenses and encourage the people themselves to work depending on the season." Will you find such heads of state, other politicians and officials at the present time?

About a noble man Confucius spoke not as of his heredity-origin, but as of a virtuous, humane person. As for the sovereign or the emperor, Confucius, speaking about the fact that he was given power by heaven, understood that it was so (it happened) and this could not be changed. About human inferiority and he said to lies: "I cannot imagine how a person cannot be truthful ...".

About our simple human pleasures Master Kun said, “For me, my pleasure is sleeping with my palm under my head, eating simple food, drinking water. Wealth, nobility, honors, which were acquired dishonestly, remind me of clouds floating in the sky (that is, they are fleeting and quickly disappear and do not give pleasure). "

A few facts from the history of Confucianism.

Confucian philosopher and "Second sage" Mencius (372-289 BC) strengthens Confucian virtue ethics , focusing on moral education in his book "Mencius".

In 219 BC. e., Emperor Qi Shih-huangdi undertook the burning of five classical works of Confucianism ("Penticanon"). And in 202 BC. e. - 220 AD e. in the Han dynasty, Confucianism was elevated to the rank of a state cult. In 124 BC. e. founded the first imperial university for the study of the "Penticanon" and the election of civil servants.

Around 250, the neo-Confucian "Dark Teaching" becomes more intellectual and sympathetic to Buddhism.

Kang Yuwei (1858-1927), tries to modernize Confucianism to make it a universal religion and challenge Christianity, but was exiled to Japan in 1898.

1934-1937 the nationalist New Life Movement led by Chiang Kai-shek is trying to revive the ethical principles of Confucianism.

In 1949, the Communist People's Republic of China declares all religions to be "counter-revolutionary."

In 1974-1976. the anti-Confucian campaign of Mao Zedong, directed against the army leadership and the intelligentsia, is taking place.

A prominent follower of Confucius was Mencius, who linked social inequality with the will of heaven. " At the same time, Mencius expressed certain progressive provisions, emphasized the idea of ​​the leading role of the people in the life of the community of people and the subordinate role of the ruler, whom the people have the right to dismiss if he does not meet the requirements presented to him.

The basis of the social structure of Confucianism was moral self-improvement and adherence to the norms of etiquette ("li"). From the 2nd century BC. e. and before the Xinhai Revolution of 1911-1913. Confucianism was the official state ideology. Note: Xinhai revolution of 1911-1913, bourgeois revolution in China. It began with the Wuchang Uprising of 1911 (in the Xinhai year according to the old Chinese calendar). She overthrew the Manchu Qing dynasty, proclaimed a republic, but did not abolish feudal and imperialist oppression, as usual replacing only the power of some freeloaders with others.

Another supporter of Confucius, Xun Tzu (298-238 BC), created a materialistic teaching, according to which the sky is a part of nature and is devoid of consciousness. Having cognized the laws (Tao) of things, he said, a person should use them in his own interests. However, the leading trend in Confucianism was the justification of the rule of the privileged classes and the praise of the "heavenly will", which served as the basis for the creation of Dong Jun-shu (II century BC) of Confucian orthodox doctrine. In the XI-XII centuries, in the person of Zhu Xi and others, Confucianism receives a philosophical foundation in the so-called. neo-Confucianism, which taught that there are two principles in things: whether - intelligent creative power and qi is passive matter. The first forms a positive quality in a person - striving for good , but second - negative - submission to sensual temptations .

Wang Yang-ming (1472-1328) substantiated Confucianism in the spirit of subjective idealism. For many centuries, Confucianism was the dominant ideology of feudal China.

Neo-confucianism, a school of idealistic Chinese philosophy, formed mainly during the Song period (X-XIII centuries). In contrast to early Confucianism, with its mainly ethical and political concepts, issues of ontology, natural philosophy and cosmogony occupy a significant place in neo-Confucianism. Its prominent representative is Joo Xi. Affirming the necessity of social order, neo-Confucianism occupied a leading position in the philosophical and socio-political thought of China until the beginning of the 20th century.

Confucian Canon:

"Pentateuch" and "Four books".

« Pent canon»Five classic pieces.

1. Shu-Jing (Book of History) contains documents, speeches and advice of legendary rulers (many compiled in 23-220 AD).
2. Shih Jing (Book of Songs), 300 poems and songs from the early Zhou Dynasty (1027-402 BC).
3. I Ching (Book of Changes), a fortune-telling book with 64 hexagrams.
4. Chun-Qiu (Chronicle "Spring and Autumn"), history of the state of Lu 722-484. BC e. with commentaries up to 200 BC e.
5. Li-Ching (Book of Rituals).

« Four books».

1. Lunyu (Collections of selected sayings of Confucius).
2. Chuang Yong (Teaching about Truth).
3. Da xue (Great Teaching).
4. Mencius, a book by the Confucian philosopher Mencius (371-289 BC).

Briefly in conclusion.

Confucius did not consider questions of cosmogony, the relationship between spirit and matter, otherworldly worlds. The central ideas in his teaching were - the mental and moral appearance of a person, issues of humanity, justice, filial piety, respect for elders, etc. However, he later became an object of worship and religious veneration. Confucius's teachings have come down to us in the form of aphorisms and sayings, sometimes allegorical and florid, nevertheless, understandable.

Chinese philosophy

In the period from the U-III centuries. BC e. there is a further development of Chinese philosophy. This is the period of the emergence of "one hundred philosophical schools", among which a special place was occupied by: Taoism (Lao-tzu and Chuang-tzi), Confucianism (Confucius), the school of Moists (Mo-tzu), legalism - the school of legalists (Shang Yan). Consider the ancient Chinese schools. Let's refer to the table (see Table 2).

Table 2.

Taoism

The central idea of ​​Taoism was the Tao theory. Lao Tzu (604 BC -?) Is considered the founder of Taoism. The Chinese word "Tao" is ambiguous: Great Way, the path of the stars and the path of virtues, the Law of the Universe and human behavior. It is the real basis of all objects and natural phenomena, it is usually translated as "the way" or the law of the world, space. The main work of Lao Tzu was the work "Tao-Te-Ching" ("Teaching about Tao and Te"). Where Tao is the essence of being, and Te is a virtue, a manifestation of Tao.

In the philosophy of Lao Tzu, attention is paid to the unity of man and heaven. Lao Tzu believed that in the world there is a single and common path for all things (Tao), which no one can change. The highest duty and purpose of man, as the founder of Taoism argued, is the pursuit of Tao. Man is not able to influence the world order, his destiny is peace and humility. The goal of Lao Tzu's teachings was self-absorption, the achievement of spiritual purification, the mastery of corporeality. According to the theory of Taoism, a person should not interfere with the natural course of events to change it. The basic principle of Taoism is the theory of non-action "uvei". Lao Tzu rejected the ethical principles of Confucius, calling for humility and compassion. The source of evil and all troubles is that a person deviates from the laws established by nature. The highest virtue is inaction and silence.

According to the doctrine of cosmogony (the doctrine of the origin of the cosmos), Taoism comes out of the fact that Qi is considered the substantial basis of being. It is from Qi that two opposite forces, Yin and Yang, are allocated, which form the five elements: Fire, Earth, Metal, Water, Wood and, accordingly, all things consisting of these elements. The dialectic of Yin and Yang looks like this (see diagram 14).

Being is understood as a constant cycle of elements (see diagram15).

So schematically (see diagram 16), you can depict the relationship of five elements and organs.

Confucianism

Another important theme of Chinese philosophical thought was the idea of ​​moral improvement on the path of observing rules and rituals, set forth in Confucianism. The founder of this philosophical concept was Confucius (551-479 BC). Ancient books are considered the most important source of philosophical knowledge in China, first of all: 1) The Book of Changes (I Ching); 2) "Conversations and Sayings" ("Lun Yu") representing the sayings of Confucius.

The main problems of the philosophy of Confucius.

• 1. The system of ethical standards.
• 2. Political issues.
• 3. Personality behavior.
• 4. Public administration.

The main goal of his teachings is to promote the well-being of society, to create a perfect ideal state. The highest values ​​should be - patriarchal and state traditions, order, service to society.

Reflecting on the fate of his society, on the imperfection of human nature, Confucius came to the conclusion that nothing positive can be achieved if one is not guided by the right principles.

The main principles of Confucianism

• - The principle of "Ren" is humanity and philanthropy. "What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others."
• - The principle of "li" reverence and ritual. "An unnatural person makes demands on himself, a low person makes demands on others."
• - The principle of "cheng-ming" - "correction of names". In society, there will be order and mutual understanding between people, if everyone behaves in accordance with their knowledge and position. "The sovereign is the sovereign, the father is the father, the son is the son."
• - The principle of "tszyun-tzu" the image of a noble man. All people are capable of being highly moral, but this is primarily the lot of the wise, engaged in mental activity. The mission of commoners to serve the aristocratic elite, led by the emperor.
• - The principle of "wen" education, enlightenment, spirituality, combined with a love of learning and non-shyness in seeking advice from subordinates.
• - The principle of "di" - obedience to the elders in position and age. "If a person is respectful, then he is not despised. If a person is truthful, then he is trusted. If a person is smart, he achieves success. If a person is kind, he can use others."
• - The "zhong" principle is loyalty to the sovereign, the moral authority of the government. Rulers must enforce order through rules of conduct. "If the authorities are not greedy, then people will not steal either." In this regard, note that in ancient China, for the first time in the history of world culture, questions were raised about the methods of government. How should the people be governed? Which should give priority: ritual rules of conduct or the law? Be guided by kindness or fear? Confucius was a supporter of "soft" governance based on morality and rules of conduct. The basic moral principle, the "golden rule" was: "Do not do what you do not wish for yourself."

Note that Confucius offers a middle ground. What does it mean? This is the way to eliminate contradictions, the art of balancing between two extremes, the art of political compromise.

The difference between Confucianism and Taoism

1. Confucianism is a rationalistic teaching and even to some extent ethical. In Taoism, the mystical principle prevails.

Confucianism addressed a person as a cultured, rational being, Taoism - as a natural being, to his emotions and instincts.

Legism and Confucianism played a significant role in the political history of China, in the development of Chinese statehood. The difference between these philosophical concepts is that Confucianism relied on high morality and ancient traditions, while legalism put the power of the law above all else, the authority of which should be based on cruel punishments, absolute obedience and deliberate stupidity of the people.

Basic concepts and terms

Brahman- in ancient Indian religious and philosophical literature, a spiritual substance, an impersonal spiritual principle, from which weight originated.

Buddha- a person with an awakened, enlightened consciousness.

Veda- an ancient Indian sacred text that is sacred to the Vedic religion, Brahmanism and Hinduism.

Hylozoism- (Greek. hule - substance, aphids - life) is a philosophical phenomenon that ascribes the ability of sensation and thinking to all forms of matter.

Taoism- the religious and philosophical teachings of China, the founder is Lao Tzu.

Confucianism- philosophical, ethical teaching of China, the founder of which was Confucius.

Upanishads(from Skt. - to sit next to the teacher) - religious and philosophical commentaries on the Vedas.

whale. "path") is one of the basic concepts of Chinese philosophy. If in the understanding of Confucius, Tao is "the way of man", i.e. moral behavior and a social order based on morality, then in Taoism proper, Tao has a universal ontological meaning: the root cause of the universe, its mysterious regularity; the integrity of life that is present in everything.

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DAO

Chinese., literally-the way, as well as the approach, schedule, function, method, regularity, principle, class, doctrine, theory, truth, morality, absolute, is one of the most important categories of Chinese philosophy. Etymologically, it goes back to the idea of ​​supremacy (show) in "movement / behavior". The closest correlative categories are de ("grace") and qi ("instrument"). In modern language, binom daode means morality, ethics. The term Tao was used to convey the Buddhist concepts "marga" and "patha", expressing the idea of ​​the path, as well as "bodhi" ("enlightenment", "awakening"). Logos and Brahman are often recognized as analogues of Tao. The hieroglyph of Tao is included in the designation of Taoism (Tao Jia, Dao Jiao) and Neo-Confucianism (Dao Xue). In Mo-Tzu, "the teaching of Tao" (Tao Jiao), in "Chuang Tzu", early Confucianism is also called the "art / technique of Tao" (Dao Shu). In different philosophical systems, Tao was defined in different ways, so Hin Yu called it, like de, "an empty position" that does not have a precisely fixed meaning.

In the Shu Ching, the term Tao has abstract meanings: "behavior", "advancement", "the path of the sovereign and Heaven" and is correlated with te, which also expresses the abstract concept of social and cosmic harmony. Since the emergence of Chinese philosophy, the question of the relationship between "human" and "heavenly", that is, became central to it. common, dao. (In a narrow sense, "heavenly Tao" meant the passage of time or the movement of stars from west to east, as opposed to the movement of the sun from east to west.) Already in the Shih Jing, there was a convergence of the concepts of "Tao" and "limit" (see Tai Chi) ...

Confucius focused on the "human" hypostases of Tao and Te, which are interconnected, but can manifest themselves independently of each other ("Dunyu", V, 12, XII, 19). He concretized Tao in various sets of ethized concepts: "filial piety" and "brotherly love", "loyalty" and "generosity" (zhong shu), ie. implementation of the "golden rule" of morality, "humanity" (ren), "knowledge" ("w") and "courage" (yong), etc. In "Lunyue", Tao is a good course of social events and human life, depending both on "predestination" (min) and on the individual. Its bearer is the individual, the state, and all of humanity (the Celestial Empire). Due to the difference between the carriers, their Tao is also different: straight and crooked, large and small, inherent in a "noble man" (ziun tzu) and an "insignificant person" (xiao ren). Accordingly, de also differ. The Celestial Empire may lose Tao altogether. Ideally, the single Tao should be cognized. Its affirmation in the world exhausts the meaning of human existence; in the absence of Tao in the Celestial Empire, one should "hide", refuse to serve.

The followers of Confucius and representatives of other schools universalized the concept of two main types of Tao and Te, distinguishing also the Tao of order and turmoil, ancient and modern, correct and false, humane and inhuman, universal and individual Tao (for example, "Mencius", "Han Fei-tzu ").

The closest disciples of Confucius gave the highest hypostasis of Tao (great, all-pervading Dao) a universal ontological meaning, and the founder of orthodox Confucianism Dong Zhongshu put forward the thesis: "The great source of Tao comes from Heaven." In Zhong Yun, the Tao of a “noble man” or “perfectly wise” is defined as a general cosmic force emanating from the individual, “consolidating in heaven and earth,” “materializing in naves and spirits,” leading to grace. "Authenticity" constitutes the "heavenly" and its realization is the "human" Tao. He who has acquired the ultimate "authenticity" is able to form a trinity with Heaven and Earth. In addition to de and qi, the concepts of "predestination", "individual nature", and "[bodily] form" are most closely related to Tao.

Cultivation in Tao, from which one cannot leave for a moment, is training (jiao). "Harmony" (he) is the all-pervading Tao of the Celestial Empire, which is concretized in five types of relations: between the ruler and the subject, father and children, husband and wife, elder and younger brothers, friends and comrades. This Tao is carried out through "knowledge", "humanity" and "courage" - the threefold all-pervading "great grace" (da te) of the Celestial Empire, which is identical to the threefold Tao "Lunyu" (XIV, 28). At the ordinary level, knowledge and realization of Tao is accessible even to the stupid and useless, but in its ultimate expression it contains something unknowable and unrealizable even for the "perfect wise".

In Mencius (4th century BC), "authenticity" is defined as "heavenly" Tao, and "thinking" ("care" -sa) about it - as "human" Tao. The Tao of the "perfect wise" is reduced only to "filial piety and brotherly love." In general, Tao is a combination of man and "humanity." Heavenly Tao is predetermined, but in some ways it also depends on "individual nature", although in general, attempts to influence Tao and "predetermination" are useless. In contrast to Confucius, who evaluated the "middle of the Tao" as a failure ("Lunyu"), Mencius saw a harmonious state in the "middle Tao".

Xun-tzu, on the one hand, exaggerated the all-encompassing Dao, announcing the entire "darkness of things" as one "side", on the other hand, called the "perfectly wise" (sheng) the "limit" of Tao. Xun Tzu considered the "limit" of the human Tao to be "decency / etiquette" (li). Tao, which is permanent in its bodily essence, is changeable, therefore it is indefinable in one of its aspects. Through the great Tao, all things change, transform and form. Following Tao presupposes curbing passions, individual accumulation of "grace", its preliminary identification and cognition. The latter is carried out by the "heart", full of emptiness, concentration and peace. Knowledge of Tao makes it possible to "weigh" (heng) all the darkness of things. In Mo-Tzu, the interpretation of Tao differs little from the early Confucian one.

Oppositional Confucian Tao theory was developed in Taoism. Its main feature is the emphasis on the "heavenly" and not the "human" hypostasis of Tao. If the Confucians proceeded from its verbal-conceptual expressiveness and even self-expression, actively using such meanings of Tao as "utterance", "saying", "teaching", then the founders of Taoism declared the verbal-conceptual inexpressibility of the highest Tao. In early Taoism, the paired categories of Tao and Te came to the fore, to which the main Taoist treatise "Tao Te Ching" is dedicated. In it, Tao is presented in two main hypostases: 1) lonely, separated from everything, constant, inactive, dwelling in peace, inaccessible to perception and verbal-conceptual expression, nameless, giving rise to "absence / nonexistence", giving rise to Heaven and Earth, 2) all-encompassing, all-pervading like water; changing with the world, acting, accessible to "passage", perception and knowledge, expressed in "name / concept", sign and symbol, giving rise to "presence / being", which is the ancestor of "darkness of things". In addition, the just ("heavenly") and vicious ("human") Tao are opposed to each other, and the possibility of deviations from Tao and its general absence in the Celestial Empire is also recognized. As “beginning”, “mother”, “ancestor”, “root”, “rhizome”, Tao genetically precedes everything in the world, including “Lord”; is described as an undifferentiated unity ("mysterious identity" containing all things and symbols in the state of "pneuma" and semen), that is, a "thing" that manifests itself in the form of a thoughtless (objectless) and formless symbol, which in this aspect is empty -comprehensive and equal to the all-pervading "absence / nonexistence". At the same time, “absence / non-being” and, therefore, Tao is interpreted as an active manifestation (“function” - yun) of “presence / being”. The genetic superiority of “absence / non-being” over “presence / being” is removed in the thesis about their mutual generation. Tao in "Tao Te Ching" is a genetic and organizing function of the unity of "presence / being" and "absence / non-being", subject and object. The main regularity of Tao is reverse, return, that is, movement in a circle, characteristic of the sky, which was thought to be round. As the next only to its nature, Tao opposes the dangerous artificiality of "tools" and the harmful supernaturalness of spirits, determining at the same time the possibility of both. "Grace" is defined in the "Tao Te Ching" as the first stage of degradation of Tao, at which a thing, born by Tao, is formed. The fullness of "grace" means "the utmostness of the seed."

In Chuang Tzu, the tendency for Tao to converge with “absence / non-being” is intensified, the highest form of which is “absence [even traces of] absence” (wu). The consequence of this was the thesis diverging from the "Tao Te Ching" and then becoming popular, according to which Tao, not being a thing among things, makes things things. In "Chuang Tzu" ideas about the unknowability of Tao are strengthened: "Completion, at which one does not know why it is so, is called Tao." At the same time, the omnipresence of Tao, which not only "passes through the darkness of things", forms space and time, but is also present in robbery and even in feces and urine, is emphasized as much as possible. Hierarchically, Tao is placed above the “Great Limit” (tai chi), but already in “Lü-shi chun ch'yu” it, as “the ultimate seed” (h; zhi ching), is identified both with the “Great Limit” and with the “Great One” ( tie and). Song [Jian] -Yin [Wen] school (4th century BC; see "Guachzi") interpreted Tao as the natural state of "seed", "subtle", "essential", "spirit-like" pneuma, which it is not differentiated either by "bodily forms" or by "names / concepts", and therefore is "void and non-existent" (xuy wu).

In Huainan Tzu, “absence / non-being” is presented as the “bodily essence” of Tao and the active manifestation of the darkness of things. Tao, which is revealed in the form of "Chaos", "Formless", "One", is defined here as "pulling together space and time" and non-localized between them.

Representatives of the school of military thought (bing jia) also put the concept of Tao as the basis of their teaching. In Sun Tzu, Tao is defined as the first of the five foundations of the art of war (along with the "conditions of Heaven and Earth", the qualities of a commander and the law), consisting in the unity of the will of the people and the leaders. Since war is viewed as a "path (Tao) of deceit," the Tao is associated with the idea of ​​selfish self-esteem and individual cunning, which was developed in late Taoism ("Yin Fu Jing"). According to "Wu Tzu", Tao is "that, thanks to which there is an appeal to the base and return to the beginning," that which pacifies and becomes the first in a series of four general principles of successful activity (the rest are "duty / justice", "planning" , "Exactingness") and "four graces" (the rest - "duty / justice", "decency / etiquette", "humanity"). Han Fei (3rd century BC), relying on the ideas of Confucianism and Taoism, developed the outlined Xun Tzu and the most important for subsequent philosophical systems (especially neo-Confucian) connection between the concepts of Tao and the "principle" (li): "Tao is that that makes the darkness of things such that determines the darkness of principles. Principles are the formative culture (wen). Tao is what makes the darkness of things. " Following the Taoists, Han Fei recognized for Tao not only a universal formative, but also a universal generative and revitalizing function. Unlike Song Jian and Yin Wen, he believed that Tao could be represented in a "symbolic" form. The interpretation of Tao in the commentary part of "Zhou and" became the basis for the development of Chinese philosophical thought. Here, both the binary model-Tao of Heaven and Earth, creativity (Qian) and performance (Kun), “noble man” and “insignificant person”, and the ternary model-Tao of Heaven, Earth, man, “three materials” (san cai ), "Three limits" (san ji). Heavenly Tao is affirmed by the forces of yin and yang, earthly - by "softness" and "hardness", human - by "humanity" and "duty / justice". The main expression of Tao is "change", transformation according to the principle "that yin, that yang". Therefore, the attribute of Tao is "back and forth". Tao as "change" means "the creation of a creation" (sheng sheng), or "the revitalization of life", which corresponds to the Taoist definition and understanding of simply generation, or life, as "the great grace of Heaven and Earth." As a "change", Tao is hierarchically higher than the "Great Limit" - it "possesses" it, which is similar to the provisions of Zhuangzi. In Xi Tsi Zhuang (c. 4th century BC), the opposition of the "supraform" Tao to "subform" "tools" was introduced for the first time. There are also four spheres of the realization of Tao: in speeches, actions, the manufacture of tools, fortune-telling (I, 10). The Confucian Yang Xiong (1st century BC - 1st century), who was influenced by both "Zhou Yi" and Taoism, presented Tao as the hypostasis of "[Great] mystery" ([Tai] Xuan), understood as the limit of "active manifestation." ; Ta is "penetration" into everything, "empty in form and determining the path of the darkness of things."

The founders of Xuan Xue, He Yan (late 2-3 c.) And Wang Bi, identified Tao with “absence / non-being”. Guo Xiang, recognizing this identification, denied the possibility of generating “presence / being” from “absence / non-being”, that is, he rejected a possible creation-deistic interpretation of Tao. Pei Wei (3rd century) directly identified Tao with “presence / being”. In Ge Hong, being a "form of forms" in the hypostasis of "One", Tao acquired two modes - "Mysterious One" (Xuan Yi) and "True One" (Zhen Yi).

The opposition between Tao and Qi-instrument was subjected to different interpretations in Chinese philosophy. Cui Jing (7-9 centuries) identified it with the opposition of yun-ti (see lu-yun): "active manifestation" ("function") - "bodily essence" ("substance"), respectively. This opposition has become one of the most important in neo-Confucianism. Zhang Zai correlated it with a pair of de-dao, the first member of which was defined as “spirit” (shen), that is, the ability of things to mutual perception, and the second as “transformation” (hua). The "active manifestation" of the "bodily primordial essence" of "pneuma", interpreted as the formless "Great emptiness" (tai xui), "Great harmony" (tai he) or the unity of "presence / being" and "absence / nonexistence", Zhang Zai equated to "Above the form of another" Tao. He also described Tao as the interaction of opposites (liang duan) that permeates the darkness of things, which is expressed in their mutual perception (spirit), which finds its bodily essence in individual nature. The universality of this interaction determines the possibility of its cognition.

Han Yu returned to the original Confucian meaning of Tao (opposing it to the Taoist and Buddhist understanding) as following "humanity" and "duty / justice" ("Yuan Tao"). The main founders of neo-Confucian philosophy focused on the general ontological meaning of Tao. According to Shao Yong, the "formless" and "self-returning" Tao is the "root of Heaven, Earth and the darkness of things," generating (animating) and shaping them. Cheng Hao, following Zhang Zai, equated Tao with “individual nature” (“Yi Shu”), and Cheng Yi distinguished them as “active manifestation” and “bodily essence,” although he also spoke of a single Tao manifested in “predestination”, “ individual nature ”and“ heart ”. Dao Cheng Yi expressed regularity in action with the help of the category "middle and unchanging", or "balance and constancy." He defined "fidelity" as "bodily essence", that is, "heavenly principle", and "reciprocity" - as "active manifestation", that is, human tao ("Yi shu"). Developing the ideas of Cheng Yi, Zhu Xi identified Tao with "principle" and "Great limit", and "tools" with "pneuma", a means of generating and animating things and the forces of yin yang ("Zhu-tzu yu lei"). Although Zhu Xi defended the unity of Tao as a "bodily entity" and "active manifestation," he was criticized by Lu Juyuan, who appealed to the original definition of "Xi Tsi Zhuang" and argued that yin yang is a "supra-shaped" tao, and therefore between Tao and "tools" do not have the functional difference established by Zhu Xi.

Wang Yangming, developing the ideas of Lu Juyuan, identified Tao with the human "heart" ("Tseng Yang-bo") and its basis - "prudence" (liang zhi).

Synthesizing the views of his predecessors, Wang Fuzhi defended the thesis of the unity of "tools" and Tao as a concrete reality and its ordering principle. The result of this ordering is de. Wang Fuzhi believed that Tao is not devoid of "form" or "symbol", but only dominates the "forms" with which everything in the world of "tools" is endowed.

Tan Sytong returned to the direct definition of "tools" and the Tao with the opposition ta - yun. The Celestial Empire is also a huge "weapon". The subject of the world of "tools" to change entails changes in Tao. This reasoning became for Tan Sitong the theoretical justification of reformism.

In general, in the historical development of the two main concepts of Tao-Confucian and Taoist, opposite tendencies can be traced. In the first, there is a growing connection with “presence / being”, universalization and objectification, movement from ontologized ethics to “moral metaphysics” (new Confucianism, especially in the person of May Zongsan). In the second, an ever-increasing connection with “absence / non-being”, concretization and subjectivization, up to the combination of Tao with the idea of ​​an individual egoistic breakthrough “to heaven”, that is, the “path” as an ingenious loophole, on which the search for personal immortality in late Taoism.

Lit .: Tao and Taoism in China. M., 1982; From magical power to moral imperative: the category of te in Chinese culture. M., 1998; Torchinov E. And Taoism. SPb., 1998.

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Taoism - philosophical trend in China. The sage Lao Tzu (6-5 centuries BC) is considered the founder of this doctrine.

The name of this direction comes from the concept "Tao"- one of the central categories of all Chinese philosophy. This concept means "Way", although in different schools and directions it is interpreted differently. Therefore, there is a wide variety of options for translating and explaining the original term into European and Russian languages: "function", "regularity", "principle", "morality", "absolute », "mind".

Tao is understood as super-being, the great one, the ultimate reality. Tao is eternal and nameless, incorporeal and formless, inexhaustible and endless in motion, it is "the forefather of all that exists", "the presence of Tao in the world is like a great drain, into which everything in the world flows like mountain streams flowing to rivers and seas." Tao is everything and nothing. Nobody created Tao, but everything comes back to it and everything comes from it. Tao is unknown to anyone, it is inaccessible to the senses, permanent and inexhaustible.

In Taoism Tao- this is the universal Law of Nature, the Beginning and End of Creation. The concept of Tao expresses social and cosmic harmony. A necessary moment for achieving harmony is movement, understood as changes, changes according to the principle of "now yin, now yang". Tao is the truth to which everyone must join himself.

Tao is inherent in the good force de (virtue, grace), through which it manifests itself in the world of "shaped things." Te of a thing is that it is, it exists. Attainment of Tao determines the behavior of a person who must follow the principle of "Wu wei" - Non-Action. The principle of non-action means action devoid of artificiality and arbitrariness, non-interference in the natural order of things and the course of events with the aim of changing them. Following the principle of non-action means preserving the existing, predetermined order in the world, this is the observance of the Universal Law of Nature - Tao.

In the Tao Universe, everything is equalized and united into a single whole. All contradictions are harmonized. The world of human experience is recognized in Taoism as relative, because it is based on the relative physiological and psychosomatic states of a person - states of sleep and wakefulness, life and death.

In Taoist philosophy, death is seen as the same natural phenomenon as the change of seasons, day and night. According to the Taoists, death should only evoke a feeling of joy in a person, since it gives him the opportunity to free himself from the bodily shell and, once again returning to the Primordial, One, to Tao, to be included in the process of endless transformations.

Confucianism - philosophical direction in China. It was formed at the turn of the 6th-5th centuries. BC. Confucius (Kun Fu-tzu) is considered its founder. Confucius is the first of the ancient Chinese philosophers whose personality is completely authentic. Confucianism was proclaimed in China as a state doctrine in the middle of the 1st century. AD It turned into a genuine political and intellectual movement, influencing all spheres of the life of Chinese society at that time.

The spread of Confucianism created a whole era in the life of the peoples of the East, covering almost two and a half thousand years. In this doctrine, in the foreground are the problems of the organization of society on the principles of harmony and justice, human improvement. This teaching was addressed to a public person. A person is born into the world without understanding the unwritten norms of behavior, but in human existence they are necessary as skin and flesh.

Confucianism is a socio-ethical concept of a person, which considered the problems of his innate and acquired qualities. It focuses on the problems of nature and human existence as a member of society.

Confucianism recognizes the basic concepts of ancient Chinese philosophy, and first of all - the concept of Tao. Confucius understood Tao as a good course of social events and human life, the bearer of which is the individual, the state and all of humanity. In canonical Confucian literature, the term Tao has an abstract meaning - "behavior", "advancement", "the path of the sovereign and Heaven" with the correlation of "heavenly Tao" with the passage of time and the movement of astral objects.

The main ideas of Confucianism are set forth in two sets of ancient books, which are called "The Pentacanon" and "The Four Books". These books contain the religious and philosophical ideas of ancient Chinese thinkers, which became the basis of Confucianism and a number of other religious and philosophical schools. They present the first ideas of future philosophical concepts ("The Book of Changes"), the ideal model of the socio-political structure of Chinese society ("The Book of Rituals"), the statements of Confucius ("Reasoning and Saying [Confucius]"), reasoning about the nature of personality and ways of self-realization a person as a member of society ("Teaching about the middle [and harmony]").

The basis of Confucianism is the doctrine of an ideal personality - a "noble husband." A “noble man” is a person who possesses “five virtues” (“five good qualities”): humanity (ren), decency (li), wisdom (zhi), justice (i) and loyalty (sin).

The concept of "ren" in translation means the human principle, humanity, conscience, mercy. The essence of ren is that "a person must be a person."

A person in his life must follow certain rituals, observe etiquette, rituals, ceremonies. In Confucianism, this is denoted by the concept "Li", meaning a set of Institutions. Lee determines the form of expression of feelings that is acceptable in society, contributes to self-improvement of the individual through the development of established rules and rituals. External forms were supposed to form the "I" of a truly noble person.

The concept of "zhi" covers all mental, cognitive activities of a person: the degree of education, the ability to understand people and anticipate events.

The concept "and" includes duty, justice, responsibility, integrity, i.e. the ability to subordinate their personal needs to the requirements of society.

The concept of "sin" includes patriotism, devotion to the motherland and people (sovereign, boss, father), to one's work, loyalty to one's own convictions and promises made.

Confucius taught: “If in a person naturalness exceeds education, he is like a redneck. If on the contrary, it is a "scribe" The balance of one or the other makes a person noble. "

Noble people are not born, they become. For the process of becoming, two sides are important: first, how a person relates to himself and to other people; second, how practical behavior and bookish knowledge relate in his life. Confucius taught: “If in a person naturalness exceeds education, he is like a redneck. If, on the contrary, it is a "scribe". The balance of one or the other makes a person noble. "

A characteristic feature of Confucianism is its commitment to tradition and stability. Filial piety and holiness of any undertaking undertaken by the previous generation become an unshakable norm of behavior. The wisdom accumulated in the past is taken as a basis, which in turn generates social stability and the invariability of the social structure of society. The concept of "li" includes, among other things, the rituals of honoring parents, their ancestors, the entire older generation.

Confucius also developed the moral concept of "xiao" - filial piety, respect for elders. On the basis of virtues, relationships are built with elders (parents, people older in age, social status, etc.). This concept ensured the continuity of knowledge, social and moral experience from generation to generation.

Confucianism laid the ideological foundation of Chinese society and substantiated a type of state structure in which the function of harmonizing the Celestial Empire was assigned to the sovereign and his assistants, enlightened officials. They must possess five virtues: philanthropy, wisdom, loyalty, respect for elders, courage. Confucianism put forward as the cornerstone of social organization - whether that meant the norm, the rule, the ceremonial. Lee assumed the maintenance of rank-hierarchical differences forever. Confucius said that without order there can be no order, and, consequently, prosperity in the state: "If not, then there are no differences between the sovereign and the subject, the top and the bottom, the old and the young ... Lee is the established order of things."

Confucius believed that without li and ren, no state, no nation can flourish.

The ideal of Confucianism was to maintain the harmony of man with nature, large and small society.

If in India numerous philosophical schools, one way or another, correlated with the Vedas, then in China the opposition with Confucianism was significant. True, in India, the delimitation into separate schools did not lead to the official recognition of the priority of any one of the philosophical trends, while in China, Confucianism in the II century. BC e. achieved the official status of state ideology and managed to preserve it until the European modern times. Along with Confucianism, Taoism, Moism and Legalism were the most influential in the rivalry of the “hundred schools” (as the Chinese in their characteristic form designated the activity of the philosophical life of those times).

In the history of philosophy as a science, there is still no generally accepted criterion for the periodization of Chinese philosophy. There are several reasons for its periodization.

1. In accordance with the European tradition of highlighting the main eras, four periods of the development of Chinese philosophy are distinguished:

ancient (XI-III centuries BC);

medieval (III century BC - XIX century);

the newest (from 1919 to the present).

Chinese philosophy dates back more than two and a half millennia. By 221 BC. BC, when the Qin dynasty united China, there were different philosophical movements in the country, and the main schools were the Confucian and Taoist schools that arose in the 6th century. BC e.

Chinese philosophy cannot be considered outside the specifics of hieroglyphic writing. In Chinese, the meaning of a word is highly dependent on context. For example, the temporal form of a verb cannot be determined out of context. Moreover, individual hieroglyphs reflect whole concepts that change depending on the signs written next to them.

It is very convenient to use Chinese writing to express complex ideas in their interconnection. However, with the help of hieroglyphs, it is much more difficult to build a chain of logical proofs. The first impression that arises when reading a classical work on Chinese philosophy, for example, the collection of sayings of Confucius "Lunyu", is that we are dealing with a treasury of wisdom, but not with the logical justification of certain premises. The author teaches you to live in harmony and well-being, but does not provide a rational basis for his advice.

Moreover, Chinese writing is conservative and has hardly changed much since the first philosophical treatise was written. The Western reader has to deal with significant linguistic changes. For example, trying to understand the meaning of a Greek word, a European is dealing with an English equivalent, which, in turn, is a translation from Latin. The Chinese do not have to deal with anything like that, because the hieroglyphs have practically the same meaning that the people who first wrote them put into them.

Chinese philosophy can be summed up in two words: harmony and tradition. Both in Taoism and in Confucianism, the idea of ​​harmony with nature and universal interconnection is a common thread. Wisdom is drawn precisely from these concepts, without which a harmonious life is inconceivable. Unlike Western philosophy, the concepts of which are based on the premise of the separation of the world and God, when events occurring are determined by a higher will, the Chinese draw inspiration from a sense of the harmony of what is happening. Even when the terms heaven or fate are used, they are used rather to describe the surrounding reality, and not to reveal some higher reality.

Another feature that characterizes Confucianism is its adherence to tradition and stability. Filial piety and holiness of any undertaking undertaken by the previous generation becomes an unshakable norm of behavior. The wisdom accumulated in the past is taken as a basis, which in turn gives rise to social stability and the invariability of the class structure of society.

In Chinese history, from the 14th to the beginning of the 20th century, the social life of the Celestial Empire was strictly regulated, and the ideas of Confucianism dominated the public consciousness. With the advent of the communists, traditional values ​​were declared feudal remnants, and the principles of Confucius were destroyed.

The Chinese way of thinking is a bizarre “mixture of what the West calls metaphysics, ethics, sociology, religion and politics. In the collection of sayings of Confucius, you will find many recommendations and moral teachings, along with a huge amount of vague discourses on the topic of personality and social behavior.

So, let's consider the two largest philosophical schools of ancient China: Confucianism and Taoism.

Confucianism. Confucianism – it is, first of all, a moral and ethical doctrine that tried to answer questions about the place that each person occupies in the world. Its essence can be conveyed with the help of Confucius's aphorism: "The sovereign should be the sovereign, the dignitary - the dignitary, the father - the father, the son - the son." The founder of Confucianism was an ancient Chinese philosopher Confucius (Kung-fu-tzu, 551 - 479 BC). A follower of Confucius made a huge contribution to the formation of this doctrine. Mencius (372 - 289 BC). The main text of Confucianism is the "Four Books", which includes the collection of speeches of Confucius "Lunyu", as well as the books "Mencius", "The Doctrine of the Middle" and "The Great Doctrine".

Confucianism was a conservative movement that idealized the past. It was based on two principles:

all the misfortunes of life at that time were the result of people deviating from the traditions followed by their ancestors. Therefore, in order to restore harmony in the state, it was necessary to return to these traditions, to revive them;

from the point of view of Confucius and his followers, the ideal state should be arranged as a family in which the roles between the members are rigidly distributed.

An important role in the philosophy of Confucius is played by the teaching of Heaven as the embodiment of fate and the power that ensures order on earth.

Central to Confucianism are:

1) the concept of "ren" (or "zheng"), which can be translated as "humanity", "humanity", "philanthropy". This principle can be formulated as follows: "Do not do to others what you do not wish for yourself, and help them achieve what you would like to achieve yourself." Or in another translation: treat people the way you would like them to treat you. " Confucius explained this concept to one of his students in the following way: Philanthropy is “respectfulness, courtesy, truthfulness, sharpness, kindness. If a person is respectful, then he is not despised. If a person is courteous, then he is supported. If a person is truthful, then they trust him. If a person is quick-witted, he achieves success. If a person is kind, he can use others ”;

2) whether principle - observance of the ritual (rituals, order, traditions). It boiled down to the fact that a person must strictly follow the norms prescribed by society, observe all the rules that he must follow. Without this, from the point of view of Confucius, the normal functioning of society was impossible. It was this principle that later became the basic principle of organizing the life of Chinese society. Confucius put a meaning in this principle, somewhat different from simple adherence to the rules of etiquette. However, after his death, when Confucianism became the dominant ideology in China, this principle began to be understood more formally, as following etiquette, and the humanistic aspects of Confucius's teachings faded into the background. According to Confucius, harmony in the state depends mainly on the will and behavior of the authorities. The ideal of Confucius is a noble statesman who serves as an example for all other people, since he observes rituals and obeys the traditional way of life. In other words, efforts should be directed not at maintaining order or building a just society, but at maintaining the existing order of things, sanctified by tradition. On the pages of the Lunyu (Conversations and Judgments) treatise attributed to Confucius, one can find the following reasoning: “If the upper classes strictly follow the rules, then the commoners will not dare to disrespect their masters. If the upper classes strictly observe justice, then the commoners dare not disobey. If the upper classes strictly follow sincerity, then the commoners will not dare to tell a lie. If [everyone] follows this, then the commoners, tying their children behind their backs, will rush to the masters' fields to work. "

In his behavior, Confucius strove to implement these principles. As chief judge, he always resolved complaints that were addressed to him in accordance with the traditional foundations of social life. The teachings of Confucius are basically rational. It was obvious to him that only clear, strictly verified knowledge can be the basis for correct behavior; he believed that if a person understands how to live, he cannot but live right. From this point of view, Confucius's statement, which expresses the whole essence of his teaching, is very indicative; in it, he puts knowledge and understanding at the forefront: “In ancient times, those who wanted to highlight the bright grace in the Celestial Empire, preliminarily ordered the state, those who wanted to bring order to their state preliminarily aligned their family, those who wanted to align their family preliminarily improved their personality, who wanted to align their personality preliminarily they aligned their hearts, those who wanted to straighten their hearts first made their thoughts sincere, those who wanted to make their thoughts sincere, preliminarily brought their knowledge to the end. Bringing knowledge to the end consists in checking things. "

Taoism. Taoism – another powerful direction of ancient Chinese thought. Chinese philosopher is considered its founder Lao Tzu(or "Old Master / Philosopher"). The thinker Chuang Tzu, who lived in the 4th century BC, is also considered a major representative of this trend. e.

The Taoist system is based on the concept of "Tao" ("way") - the first principle, an impersonal world law, the way of comprehending nature and its laws. Tao is nothing, the beginning and end of the world, since all material things are born from nothingness, and then, collapsing, again go into nothingness. Hence, only Tao (non-being) is eternal, everything else is transient . Tao is the primary non-being that has no name; by calling it, we transform it into being. Taoists endowed Tao with contradictory signs, i.e. viewed as something in which opposites become identities.

It should be borne in mind that Taoism was formed to a large extent as an opposition to Confucianism. According to historical tradition, Lao Tzu, being the chief archivist at the Zhou court, met Confucius and was well acquainted with his teachings. However, over time, he became disillusioned with the Chinese statehood and went to wander. And it was precisely this disappointment that caused him to create the doctrine that was reflected in the book attributed to him “ Tao Te Ching » ("The Book about the Way and Its Manifestations") , created in the V - IV centuries. BC e.

This opposition between Taoism and Confucianism is manifested in the interpretation of the concept of "Tao", which plays a leading role in both the philosophy of Confucianism and the philosophy of Taoism. Confucius viewed Tao as following the principles of morality, observing the requirement of philanthropy (ren) and improving the personality through exercise in the arts: archery, playing musical instruments, calligraphy and mathematics. In other words, Tao is viewed in Confucianism as a social phenomenon. Taoism focuses mainly on the natural aspect of Tao, and this is expressed in the most important position of Taoism: "Follow the nature of all things and have nothing personal in you." Naturalness and simplicity - that is what lies at the heart of the philosophy of Taoism. Many of these ideas would later be developed by many Western philosophers.