Chernyshevsky what to do idea. What to do?" - "new novel about new people"

A novel was created in the fortress and was intended for friends, for new people, with whom Chernyshevsky was looking for communication. The critic gave the main task of the novel in the title. This novel was extremely relevant for its time and develops what was said in fiction before Chernyshevsky. ("Who is to blame?") The second title of the novel is also important: "From stories about new people."

This work is multi-problem. The problems of the novel are comprised of the following questions:

1. The main thing is Problem About personal happiness and about the ways to general happiness (revolution, socialism).

2. The problem of love between a man and a woman and the problem of love for people (as the basis of a revolutionary worldview).

3. About the choice of a profession, about his work and about the liberation of labor, about work as the basis of the development of society, about the forms of labor.

4. The problem of the past, present and future of Russia. About reality in the broadest sense of the word.

There are 4 belts and 4 types of people in the novel.

The vulgar people who should soon move away, the antediluvian people. (Rosalskaya)

New people, new ordinary people. (Lopukhov, Kirsanov, Vera Pavlovna)

Associated with the second higher people, special new people. (Rakhmetov)

People of the future. (4th dream of Vera Pavlovna)

New people are not loners, they do not feel random. New people are a whole group, an environment. They are given not in a stranger, but in their own environment. Chernyshevsky talks about a group of new people and shows what unites them.

These are people modern to Chernyshevsky, modern normal people. The movement of time was manifested in them. They are a sign of the times. The characters of these people are created by labor combined with knowledge. Labor made them strong. Chernyshevsky emphasizes activity, sobriety, reality in new people.

Chernyshevsky, believing that the time must come when the companions of good will not be weakness, but strength. For Pechorin, for example, the lofty dream was combined with impracticality, for Chernyshevsky, on the contrary, good people are weak, and evil people are strong. Chernyshevsky does not romanticize his heroes, his new people are active and reasonable. Chernyshevsky trusted too much human nature and reason. Therefore, his characters are very faithful to their minds. Chernyshevsky reveals the story of his heroes. They gradually rise to a revolutionary outlook. Chernyshevsky dwells on the morality of his heroes. Their Ethics He calls it "reasonable egoism." The ethics of Chernyshevsky's heroes are based on the following principles:

1. There is no happiness without freedom.

2. The pleasure is to act honestly.

3. There is no lonely happiness.

Chernyshevsky explains that this theory is only for developed people, for whom to act honestly is a pleasure. Such morality requires only internal development, when the personal and the general are inseparably merged. Chernyshevsky tried to illustrate personal relationships. The desire for communication is inherent in human nature itself. Chernyshevsky wanted to deduce high morality from human nature itself. This is not contrary to the Christian interpretation.

Chernyshevsky's innovation in depicting new people was of a fundamental nature - not only socio-political, but also literary and creative. Indeed, in real life, there were still few people like the heroes of the novel "What is to be done?" Goncharov was convinced that the artistic Type of consists of long and many repetitions, layers of phenomena and persons, and that from that time on he becomes a type, when he was repeated many times and became familiar to everyone. Chernyshevsky defended the right to write about those phenomena that had just emerged in life, although they had not yet become a mass phenomenon.

So, in the novel, primary attention is paid to new people - kind and strong, knowledgeable and able. (Lopukhov, Kirsanov, Vera Pavlovna) But apart from them there is also a special person - Rakhmetov.

The author makes it a kind of standard by which the real significance of ordinary decent people is established. What marks it? He is a professional revolutionary who deliberately gave his life to the cause of the liberation of the people.

The image is to some extent autobiographical, but this does not refer to the origin of the hero, but to the strength of mind, inner conviction, dedication and moral fortitude.

Not everyone can be like Rakhmetov, but like Lopukhov, Kirsanov, Vera Pavlovna - all people can really be kind, decent. “No sacrifices are required, no hardships are asked. Desire to be happy - only this desire is needed.

The main heroes of Russian classical literature that preceded Chernyshevsky were “superfluous people”. With all the differences between themselves, Onegin, - from moral exhaustion. These are not the heroes of Chernyshevsky. His "new people" know what they need to do, and are able to implement their plans, their thought is inseparable from the deed, they do not know the discord between consciousness and will. Chernyshevsky's heroes are creators of new relationships between people, carriers of a new morality. These new people are in the center of the author's attention, they are the main characters of the novel; therefore, by the end of the second chapter of the novel, such representatives of the old world as Marya Alekseevna, Storeshnikov, Julie, Serge and others are “released from the scene”.

The novel is divided into six chapters, each of which, with the exception of the last, is in turn divided into chapters. In an effort to emphasize the exceptional importance of the final events, Chernyshevsky talks about them in a specially highlighted one-page chapter "Change of scenery".

The importance of the fourth dream of Vera Pavlovna is especially great. It depicts the past, present and future of humanity in an allegorical form, in a change of pictures. In the fourth dream of Vera Pavlovna, revolution appears again, "the sister of her sisters, the bride of her suitors." She talks about equality, brotherhood, freedom, that "there is nothing higher than a man, there is nothing higher than a woman," talks about how people's life will be arranged and what a person will become under socialism.

A characteristic feature of the novel is the author's frequent digressions, appeals to heroes, and conversations with a discerning reader. The significance of this imaginary character is very great in the novel. In his face, the philistine part of the public is ridiculed and exposed, inert and stupid, looking for sharp scenes and piquant situations in novels, constantly talking about “artistry and not understanding anything in true art. A discerning reader is one who “smugly talks about literary or scientific things, in which he doesn’t understand anything, and does not interpret because he is really interested in them, but in order to flaunt his mind (which he did not happen to receive from nature ), his lofty aspirations (which in him are as many as in the chair on which he sits) and his education (which in him is as much as in a parrot). "

Mocking and mocking this character, Chernyshevsky was thereby addressing the reader-friend, for whom he had great respect, and demanded from him a thoughtful, intent, truly insightful attitude to the story of the "new people."

The introduction of the image of the discerning reader into the novel was explained by the need to draw the attention of the reading public to what, due to censorship conditions, Chernyshevsky could not speak openly and directly.

To answer the question "What to do?" Chernyshevsky raises and resolves the following burning problems from a revolutionary and socialist position:

1. The socio-political problem of reorganizing society in a revolutionary way, that is, through the physical collision of two worlds. This problem is given in hints in the history of Rakhmetov's life and in the last, 6th chapter "Change of scenery". Due to censorship, Chernyshevsky was unable to expand on this problem in detail.

2. Moral and psychological. This is a question about the internal restructuring of a person who, in the process of struggling with the old power of his mind, can cultivate new moral qualities in himself. The author traces this process from its initial forms (the struggle against family despotism) to preparation for a change of scenery, that is, for a revolution. This problem is revealed in relation to Lopukhov and Kirsanov, in the theory of rational egoism, as well as in the author's conversations with readers and heroes. This problem also includes a detailed story about sewing workshops, that is, about the importance of labor in people's lives.

3. The problem of the emancipation of women, as well as the norms of the new family morality. This moral problem is revealed in the life story of Vera Pavlovna, in the relationships of the participants in the love triangle (Lopukhov, Vera Pavlovna, Kirsanov), as well as in the first 3 dreams of Vera Pavlovna.

4. Socio-utopian. The problem of the future socialist society. It is deployed in the 4th dream of Vera Pavlovna as a dream of a beautiful and bright life. This also includes the theme of labor emancipation, that is, of the technical machine equipment of production.

The main pathos of the book is a passionate enthusiastic propaganda of the idea of ​​a revolutionary transformation of the world.

The main desire of the author was the desire to convince the reader that everyone, provided they work on themselves, can become a "new person", the desire to expand the circle of their like-minded people. The main task was to develop a new methodology for the upbringing of revolutionary consciousness and "honest feelings". The novel was intended to become a life textbook for every thinking person. The main mood of the book is an acute joyful expectation of a revolutionary upheaval and a thirst to take part in it.

Which reader is the novel addressed to?

Chernyshevsky was an educator who believed in the struggle of the masses themselves; therefore, the novel is addressed to broad strata of the diverse democratic intelligentsia, which in the 60s became the leading force of the liberation movement in Russia.

Artistic techniques with the help of which the author conveys his thoughts to the reader:

Method 1: the title of each chapter is given a family and household character with a predominant interest in a love affair, which quite accurately conveys the plot plot, but hides the true content. For example, chapter one "The Life of Vera Pavlovna in the parental family", chapter two "First love and legal marriage", chapter three "Marriage and second love", chapter four "Second marriage", etc. These names breathe traditionally and imperceptibly what is truly new, namely the new character of human relations.

Method 2: application of plot inversion - moving 2 introductory chapters from the center to the beginning of the book. The scene of the mysterious, almost detective disappearance of Lopukhov diverted the attention of the censorship from the true ideological orientation of the novel, that is, from what was later given the main attention of the author.

Method 3: the use of numerous hints and allegories, called Aesop speech.

Examples: "golden age", "new order" - this is socialism; "Business" is revolutionary work; A “special person” is a person of revolutionary convictions; "Stage" is life; "Change of scenery" - a new life after the victory of the revolution; The "bride" is a revolution; "Light beauty" is freedom. All of these techniques are designed for the reader's intuition and intelligence.

The question of the "primary sources" of the work is of fundamental importance for understanding the author's artistic method "What is to be done?", His genre and plot-compositional structure. What is the relationship between reality and the creative imagination of the artist-novelist?

What are the interrelationships between the real life of the young generation of commoners of the sixties and the world outlook of the heroes of the novel, their educational practice and the socio-philosophical concept of the author-thinker?

How did the reorientation of genre criteria come about from a love-intimate novel to a socio-philosophical novel?

How were the traditional plot decisions of predecessors used and revised, and on what paths was the original genre structure of the new narrative erected?

Chernyshevsky believed that in life every minute there are "poetic events" that "in their development and denouement" often have "artistic completeness and completeness", and "the prototype for a poetic person is very often a real person".

It is no coincidence that actual events and the lives of people he knew aroused in him the need to comprehend them in an artistic diary sketch (1848) and in the story "Theory and Practice" 1849-1850. (the events caused by the marriage of V.P. Lobodovsky, Chernyshevsky's university friend), and the original creative beginning in the story "Understanding" (on which Chernyshevsky also worked during his university years) was historically existing persons (Louise, Goethe's sister).

In the scientific literature, the prototypes of many literary characters from the work of Chernyshevsky have been convincingly established: V.A.Obruchev for Alferyev (from the story of the same name), N.A. Serakovsky - for Sokolovsky, N. A. Milyutin - for Savelov, and N. G. Chernyshevsky himself - for Volgin (the novel "Prologue").

All researchers of the novel "What is to be done?" agree that the songs and additional explanations of the "ladies in mourning", especially when performing the Scottish romance-ballad "The Robber" by Walter Scott, reproduce in disguised form the scene of Chernyshevsky's explanation with his bride Olga Socratovna Vasilyeva.

“Of course,” he clarifies the artist’s right to fiction, “I had to alter these facts somewhat so that they did not point fingers at the people I’m talking about, that, they say, here she is, which he renamed Vera Pavlovna, but really his name is like this, and her second husband, whom he transferred to the Medical Academy, is a well-known our scientist such and such, serving in a different way, precisely in what department. "

Researchers have different points of view on the expediency of studying prototypes of the characters of "What is to be done?" For example, Academician M. V. Nechkina believes that "the Rakhmetov type empowers researchers to search for all prototypes, and even more so those indicated by the author himself."

It should only be noted that the prototype will never be identical to the artistic image. In particular, despite a number of similar details in the behavior of Rakhmetov and P. A. Bakhmetov, about which a lot has already been written, in no case can an equal sign be put between them.

To a certain extent, real sources provide an opportunity to look into the writer's creative laboratory. In this sense, for example, such a parallel is curious. Rakhmetov's interest in Newton's commentary on the Apocalypse of St. John "as a" classical source on the mixing of madness with the mind "echoes the work of the" landowner "N. I. Utin on the article on the Apocalypse for the" Encyclopedic Dictionary ", published with the participation of P. L. Lavrov, and with the translation of the Bible, carried out V. I. Kelsiev and published in London (1860).

However, there are few such transparent hints of Rakhmetov's connection with his prototypes in the novel. All data on the similarity of the "special person" with the most prominent figures of the period of the revolutionary situation (N. A. Dobrolyubov, P. D. Ballod, brothers N. A. and A. A. Serno-Solovievich, etc.) are of a general nature. But even in this case, we can come to the conclusion that when working on the image of Rakhmetov ("I have met so far only eight samples of this breed (including two women)"), the writer artistically summarized the main things in worldview and psychology, in personal and the social practice of friends in the revolutionary underground.

Considering that "the original already has a general meaning in its individuality," Chernyshevsky saw the writer's task in understanding "the essence of character in a real person," to understand "how this person would act and speak in the circumstances among which he would be staged by the poet "," to convey it as the poet understands it. "

This was the artistic and transformative function of the novelist, preventing the danger of illustrativeness and naturalism.

It is noteworthy that the Democratic writers of the 60s and 70s. In the 19th century, continuing the traditions of Chernyshevsky, they relied in their creative practice on the actual historical events of their time, artistically transforming them. It is quite probable that N. Bazhin got acquainted with the first steps of the revolutionary organization of N. A. Ishutin - I. A. Khudyakov (1863-1866) while working on the story "Stepan Rulev" (1864).

In any case, one of the characters in his story, Ilya Kudryakov, Stepan Rulev's “best friend and comrade-in-arms”, resembles the greatest revolutionary leader Ivan Khudyakov (similarity of names: Khudyakov - Kudryakov; lameness of both as a result of injury suffered from a horse in childhood; spiritual kinship and a similar method of educational activity of the folklorist and bookseller wandering through the villages).

I. Kushchevsky in the novel "Nikolai Negorev, or the Prosperous Russian" (1870) responded to the events of the first revolutionary situation, spoke about the activities of the sixties, who arranged the revolutionary "societies" and "branches" and decided "not to miss the favorable case of announcing the decree on the emancipation of the peasants." for a popular uprising.

With great warmth the author writes about a member of this "branch" Andrei Negorev, who distributed brochures and proclamations, who later became a political émigré, about Overin, who, under the influence of these proclamations, threw himself "into the abyss" and led a peasant uprising.

Kushchevsky deliberately brings Overin's feat closer to the revolutionary activities of Chernyshevsky, when, in describing the civil execution, Overin historically reliably reproduces the place, circumstances and details of the government outrage against Nikolai Gavrilovich (the bouquet of flowers thrown from the crowd to the “criminal at the pillar of shame” is not forgotten!).

V. Bervy-Flerovsky's novel For Life and Death (1877), in its first part, largely correlates with the social events of the 60s; the title character of this part, Pavlusha Skripitsin, even meets Chernyshevsky himself!

The second part of Flerovsky's work "Disciples" corresponds to the time and circumstances of the propaganda activities of the "Tchaikovites" and "Dolgushinites" in workers' circles (early 70s), and the third part ("New Religion") is devoted to the events of "going to the people" in 1874— 1875 In this novel, all the key problems that occupied progressive Russian society over a long period of time (40-70s of the 19th century) were crossed.

A participant in the revolutionary underground S. Stepnyak-Kravchinsky captured in his works (Underground Russia, 1881; Andrei Kozhukhov, 1889, and others) the moods and circumstances of the heroic struggle against tsarism of his comrades from the era of “going to the people” (Pyotr Kropotkin , Dmitry Lizogub, Vera Zasulich, Dmitry Klements) and the "Narodnaya Volya" period (Sofya Perovskaya, Stepan Khalturin, Alexander Mikhailov).

Some researchers of the novel "What is to be done?" believe that Chernyshevsky expanded the range of literary sources, referring to the method of thought experiment, adopted in the exact sciences, when “a scientist, based on the data of his theory, creates a model of experience that in reality cannot be produced at a given technical level, and thus proves the fundamental correctness ideas ".

“The method of hypothetical simplification of situations and conflicts” is transferred in this case to the structure of a utopian novel, which “is, as it were, a description of the“ mental ”implementation of an idea into life.

This experience is "described" as real, and the novel is often perceived by readers as a scientific description. " The hypothetical method of research of Chernyshevsky the novelist is seen primarily in the story about the organization of a sewing workshop-commune by Vera Pavlovna and in the description of socialist society (“The Fourth Dream of Vera Pavlovna”) as a historically already arisen and inevitably growing process of the reorganization of society.

These observations undoubtedly help to clarify the origins of social psychology, the worldview of the heroes of the novel. They allow us to concretely represent the internal "mechanism" of the artistic embodiment of the dreams of real people about a bright future.

However, when deciding the question of the relationship between reality and fantasy, there is no reason to "transfer" the entire novel of Chernyshevsky from a realistic work to the category of utopian novels, to reduce the "first cases" of personal and social activity of "new people" with "historical interest" to only "imitation of experience. ".

A work that imitates the objectivity and accuracy of the description, achieves the believability and fascination of the narrative in the name of proving a certain author's postulate, will have nothing to do with realistic art and, at best, will fulfill an illustrative function.

Contemporaries perceived the novel "What is to be done?" otherwise. A prominent figure in the revolutionary movement of the 60s. N. I. Utin (who later became one of the organizers of the Russian section of the First International) wrote on February 22, 1864 to N. P. Ogarev about the work of Chernyshevsky: “I will in no way agree that his goal is fantastic, because he does not even think to speak that everything is realizable this very minute, on the contrary, he shows that you need to go step by step, and then says: this is what will happen at the end of your labors and aspirations, this is how you can live. And therefore 'work and work' ”.

The principles of the socialist organization of labor associations have already become available to the best part of the diverse intelligentsia of the 60s. XIX century. The socialist ideal in the world outlook of the "sixties" (even if in a utopian version!) Is a reality, not a fantasy.

A hypothetical calculation of the profits that each seamstress receives from the workshop, their benefits from living together and a common household is an operation of "real", "living" people who know what to do, what to live for. Therefore, Chernyshevsky writes about the workshops-communes as about real labor associations in life.

Were there actually sources for a realistic description of Vera Pavlovna's sewing workshop?

Chernyshevsky, talking about the work of Vera Pavlovna's workshop, tried to somehow respond to the aspirations of women of the 60s. improve their working conditions. According to the statistical data of 1860, it is known that in St. Petersburg “4,713 artisans were content with a salary of 2-3-5 rubles. a month on the master's table and tea. Those who worked at home, living with a husband or family, earned 2-3 rubles a month on gloves, an agramant, and even less on stockings. "

An energetic work to improve the lives of women in need was carried out by the circle of Maria Vasilievna Trubnikova. In 1859 he founded the "Society of Cheap Apartments and Other Benefits for Needy Residents" of St. Petersburg. The society first rented apartments for its clients in different parts of the city, but then a large house was bought with money from the lottery, to which all the poor were transferred.

“At the same time, the Society got the opportunity to start fulfilling its cherished desire - to set up a school for children and a sewing workshop, where residents could receive and perform work, and where outsiders could also come and do their own work on sewing machines provided to them free of charge.

N.V. Stasova worked especially energetically in the workshop, through whose efforts a large order was soon received from the commissariat, which provided her with work for a long time. At school, teaching was carried out first by members of the community, and then by the teachers invited for this purpose. " However, in the work of the workshop, we still do not see the embodiment of socialist principles.

The same memoirs assert that M.V. Trubnikova's circle, having begun its social activities with philanthropy, then “evolved, reflecting the influence of other, often more radical circles, for example, the circle of Chernyshevsky (the society“ Earth and Freedom ”), with whom Maria Vasilievna was directly connected through her friends, brothers Nikolai and Alexander Serno-Solovievich, and to whom she was attracted by her own democratic and anti-monarchist tendencies. "

It is interesting to recall yet another attempt by the circle of MV Trubnikova - to create a "Society of Women's Labor". Information about him expands our understanding of the era of the 60s. and once again testify to the great difficulties faced by the enthusiasts of the women's movement.

The society was conceived with ambitious plans. It should have the right to establish various workshops: sewing, bookbinding, translation and publishing offices for children and scientific books. PL Lavrov took part in drawing up its charter in 1863.

Only part of this program was implemented. At the beginning of 1863, it was possible to organize a women's artel or society of translators-publishers, which included 36 people (M.V. Trubnikova, N.V. Stasova, A.N. Engelgardt, N.A. Belozerskaya, M.A. , A.P. Filosofova, V.V. Ivasheva, E.A.Stakenshneider and others). The bookbinding and binding of the books published by the society was carried out by a female binding company founded by V.A.Inostrantseva. Illustrations and engravings were also done by women.

Thus, there is every reason to believe that in the story of Vera Pavlovna's work, Chernyshevsky relied on real life facts. Attempts have already been made to find new forms of labor organization, everyday life and education of workers.

The description of the revolutionary and educational work of Lopukhov, Kirsanov and Mertsalov among the workers of the sewing workshop has a vital basis. We know about the existence of Sunday schools for adults, organized by the "landowners". And yet, the actual facts from life turned out to be insufficient for the embodiment of Chernyshevsky's artistic intention.

In the novel, Vera Pavlovna's workshop did not resemble an enterprise organized by Trubnikova's circle. Therefore, the writer wrote in a draft version of the novel: “There is one more feature in the story that I invented: it’s a workshop. In fact, Vera Pavlovna was not busy with setting up a workshop; and such workshops as I described, I did not know: they do not exist in our dear fatherland. She actually [fussed over] something like Sunday school<...>not for children, but for adults. "

Chernyshevsky had to, to a certain extent, "invent" Vera Pavlovna's workshop. In this sense, the "hypothetical method of research" of Chernyshevsky the economist really came in handy for Chernyshevsky the novelist as an additional, auxiliary way of artistic motivation of Vera Pavlovna's idea of ​​organizing workshops according to the samples proposed by "kind and smart people" who wrote "many books about how to live on light to make everyone feel good. "

However, it should be clarified that in this case the method of thought experiment has already been removed from the author, became the property of Vera Pavlovna (“These are my thoughts”), a real sign of the intellectual achievements of “new people”.

Subsequently, the reader of the novel learns that it turned out to be impossible to realize the socialist ideal in the country of autocratic despotism. As is known from the novel, after Kirsanov's visit to the "enlightened husband" (a representative of the authorities) and a conversation with him (Section XVII of the fourth chapter), there was "nothing to think about the development of the enterprise, which asked to go forward." The path to a new life in socialist labor associations lies only through the revolution.

Chernyshevsky already had a theoretical substantiation of the difference between the dream of idle fantasy, divorced from reality, and the dream of a bright future, contributing to social progress. In the concept of reality, he included "not only the present, but also the past, as far as it was expressed by the deed, and the future, as far as it is prepared by the present." This connection between the future and the present determines the artistic "compatibility" of realism and romanticism in What Is To Be Done?

The fate of the works of utopian writers, who were forced to construct the elements of the new society from their heads, because these elements were not yet clearly visible to everyone in the depths of the old society, depended on the author's great theoretical training and artistic tact, on his ability to correctly reveal the historical laws of the development of society ...

The danger of "arbitrary regulation of details, and precisely those details, for the prediction and representation of which reality does not yet provide sufficient data," lurked, in the opinion of M. Ye. Saltykov-Shchedrin, and the author of "What is to be done?" However, Chernyshevsky in many ways (as is confirmed by the practice of the developed socialist society that has come true in our time) avoided this danger.

As far as it was possible for him, when working on the novel, he used the achievements of science and technology of his time in order to recreate the picture of the future more vividly, artistically more tangibly (the construction of canals and irrigation systems, which began at that time, the discovery of electricity, the use of aluminum in industry and in the home). everyday life, experience of growing fruit in greenhouses, achievements of architecture).

However, all this for the writer is just a "hint", an impetus for the reconstruction of a more sublime picture, but without this "hint" it was impossible to achieve a concrete emotional perception of the pictures of the future. For example, the Crystal Palace on Saydengam Hill in England was such a "hint" to the huge "crystal palace" that Vera Pavlovna sees in her dreams. Chernyshevsky first described "Paxton's palace" in the August issue of the Sovremennik magazine for 1854.

Thus, the utopian pictures in Chernyshevsky's novel, in many of their artistic details, went back to reality, and this prevented the danger of abstract schematism. Romantic solemnity, elation in describing a bright and beautiful future corresponded to the laws of romantic art and their individual manifestation in the artistic form of dreams.

The latter, in turn, did not allow the reader to forget that he was touching the world outlook and the innermost dream of a real heroine - his contemporary.

So in the complex correlation of historical reality and utopia, real and romantic, events from the life of familiar people and "mental", "hypothetical" situations and conflicts, the original artistic structure of Chernyshevsky's novel is recreated, in which the first - realistic - link both in its primary sources and in its own art form is leading.

“Chernyshevsky places his stake on realism, arising from the knowledge of life and possessing rich colors,” A. V. Lunacharsky authoritatively asserted. As for the romantic tendencies in fiction about “new people”, they, manifesting themselves in an intensified craving for “idealization”, arise where there is an acute sense of “the aesthetically conscious need to make up for the lack of real life material with lyricism, author’s conviction”.

The “first cases” of the production activity of the characters in “What is to be done?” That have “historical interest” are also remarkable in another respect. Talking about the organization of a sewing workshop-commune and about Lopukhov's educational activities among workers, Chernyshevsky, in fact, opened a new plot-organizing center for future novels about "new people."

Sewing workshops, Sunday schools, educational readings for workers, savings and loan banks were for the raznochin revolutionaries strong points of propaganda activities and, naturally, were reflected in the literature, laying solid foundations for a new plot-compositional structure of the work (N. Bazhin, “Stepan Rulev "," The history of one partnership "; I. Omulevsky," Step by step "; K. Stanyukovich," Without an outcome "; P. Zasodimsky," Chronicle of the village of Smurina ", etc.).

In the novel by Chernyshevsky "What is to be done?" for the first time in literature, the idea of ​​an artistic depiction of a socialist labor association was realized, the head of a collective production from among the diverse intelligentsia was shown, ways of raising the general culture and political consciousness of the “commoners” through Sunday schools were outlined. Chernyshevsky foresaw the need to study the experience of the revolutionary labor movement in the West (Rakhmetov and Lopukhov's trip abroad).

In N. Bazhin's story "Stepan Rulev" the influence of the novel "What is to be done?" supported by the impressions of the efforts of the Ishutins to build the plant on an artel basis. The meaning of the main "enterprise" of Rulev and Walter is precisely the preparation of an artel factory in the Urals.

The works of I. Omulevsky "Step by Step" (1870) and K. Stanyukovich "Without an Exodus" (1873) continue to artistically develop the theme of propaganda among workers through Sunday schools, acquainting with the difficulties of the legal activities of these schools. Svetlov, the first of the "new people" in democratic literature, had to get acquainted with the spontaneous workers' strike and exert a still timid influence on its development within the legal framework. G. Uspensky noticed in the worker Mikhail Ivanovich steady tendencies towards rebellion, towards protest against "pressing" ("Ruin", 1869).

In an atmosphere of the upsurge of the social movement at the turn of the 60s and 70s, the organization of the Russian section of the First International and the activities of the Big Society of Propaganda in workers' circles, the Narodnik propagandists themselves demand that writers reflect the contacts of Russian revolutionaries with the labor movement of Western Europe (V. Troshchansky, "The ideals of our public figures").

M. Kovalsky welcomes the activities of Svetlov. L. Shchegolev develops a plan for a literary work from the life of workers, A. Obodovskaya writes a story about the fate of a free-loving village boy who went through a school of social education at a factory (Neustrashimko). However, the creative embodiment of the working theme in literature was complicated by the underdevelopment of the proletarian movement in Russia.

In the early 70s. the artistic elaboration of the "labor question" and the ties of the Russian "enlighteners" with the revolutionary West was complicated by the Bakunin-Nechaev propaganda, adventurism and the dictatorship of the anarchists. In the novel by S. Smirnova (Sazonova) "Salt of the Earth" (1872), contradictory tendencies of the early 70s crossed: on the one hand, for the first time in literature, the colorful image of the worker-agitator Levka Trezvov is recreated, combining the strength and skill of a hammer-worker with talent a revolutionary propagandist who lucidly explains to workers the need for social solidarity in the struggle for their rights; on the other hand, the character of Levka reflected the weaknesses of nechaevism (demagoguery and ambition, “the desire to play a role without fail,” adherence to the rule: “the end justifies the means”).

In the same novel, the idea of ​​a production association of a socialist type is replaced by the propaganda of the Lassallean plan of creating a credit and industrial partnership under the auspices of the authorities.

In the second half of the 70s - early 80s. in the literature there is a noticeable tendency to rethink the work of the "new people" with workers. In 1877 Bervy-Flerovsky refers to the early 70s. and the activities of agitators from the Great Propaganda Society in the workers' "cells" ("For life and death").

The second part of Bervey's novel introduces an artistic characterization of different types of workers who have left the school of political education with Ispoti and Anna Semyonovna, attention is paid to the emergence of class-conscious workers with "a deeper and sharper understanding of science than most educated youths" who are interested in the life and struggle of the working class for border.

By the events of the early 70s. addresses in the novel "Two Brothers" (1880) K. Stanyukovich. The hero of this novel, Mirzoyev, has connections with the Russian political emigration and lectures to workers.

Along with the populist interest in peasant revolts in Russian literature of the period of the second revolutionary situation, attention is shown to unrest among the workers (N. Zlatovratsky, Golden Hearts, 1877; A. Osipovich-Novodvorsky, History, 1882; O. Shapir, One out of many ”, 1879). Plowman Abramov led the workers' revolt at the sugar factory, the technician of the Utyuzhinsky factory Nezhinsky, who studied the experience of the proletarian movement in the West, systematically leads the struggle of workers for their rights in four factories.

Here are far from all the works of democratic literature that recreate the artistic chronicle of the labor movement and the role of various intelligentsia in it.

However, the given material is enough to be convinced of the historical and literary perspective of the artistic discoveries of the author "What is to be done?" when describing the organizational activities of the "new people" in the new type of workers 'collectives, which turned from a "thought experiment" of a semi-utopian nature into the real practice of the propaganda work of the democratic intelligentsia in workers' circles at the dawn of the proletarian movement in Russia. This is how new plot-organizing tendencies emerged in realistic literature, originating in Chernyshevsky's first novel.

(It is noteworthy that in the last (unfinished) novel by Chernyshevsky "Reflections of the radiance", written in Siberian exile (1879-1883), a story is introduced about the organization by Aurora Vasilyevna of a labor gardening association and a factory on a collective basis).

History of Russian Literature: in 4 volumes / Edited by N.I. Prutskov and others - L., 1980-1983

In literature lessons, as a rule, little attention is paid to the work of Chernyshevsky "What to do". This is partly correct: delving into the endless dreams of Vera Pavlovna, analyzing the plot, which serves only as a frame for the main idea of ​​the work, trying through gnashing of teeth to make out not the most artistic and easy language of the author, stumbling almost over every word - the lessons are long, boring and not completely justified. From the point of view of literary criticism, this is not the best choice to consider. But what an influence this novel had on the development of Russian social thought in the 19th century! After reading it, one can understand how the most progressive thinkers of that time lived.

Nikolai Chernyshevsky was arrested and imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress for his radical statements about the authorities at that time. His work was also born there. The history of the novel "What to do" began in December 1862 (the author added it in April 1863). Initially, the writer conceived it as a response to Turgenev's book "Fathers and Sons", where he portrayed a man of a new formation - the nihilist Bazarov. Eugene comprehended a tragic ending, but in contrast to him, Rakhmetov was created - a more perfect hero of the same mindset, who no longer suffered for Anna Odintsova, but was engaged in business, and very productively.

To deceive the vigilant censors and the judicial commission, the author introduces a love triangle into political utopia, which takes up most of the text. With this trick, he confused the officials, and they gave permission to publish. When the deception was revealed, it was already too late: the novel "What is to be done" was sold throughout the country in issues of Sovremennik and handwritten copies. The ban did not stop the distribution of the book or the imitation of it. It was removed only in 1905, and a year later, individual copies were officially released. But for the first time in Russian it was published long before that, in 1867 in Geneva.

It is worth citing some quotes from contemporaries in order to understand how significant and necessary this book was for people of that time.

The writer Leskov recalled: “They did not talk about Chernyshevsky’s novel in a whisper, not in silence, but at full throat in the halls, at the entrances, at Mrs. Milbret’s table and in the basement brewery of Steenbock’s passage. They shouted: 'disgusting', 'lovely', 'abomination', etc. - all in different tones. "

The anarchist Kropotkin spoke enthusiastically about the work:

For Russian youth of that time, it was a kind of revelation and turned into a program, became a kind of banner

Even Lenin honored her with his praise:

The novel “What to do?” Plowed me deeply. This is a thing that gives you a charge for life.

genre

There is an antithesis in the work: the direction of the novel "What to do" is sociological realism, and the genre is utopia. That is, truth and fiction are closely adjacent in the book and give rise to a mixture of the present (objectively reflected realities of that time) and the future (the image of Rakhmetov, the dreams of Vera Pavlovna). That is why he caused such a resonance in society: people painfully perceived the prospects put forward by Chernyshevsky.

In addition, "What to Do" is a philosophical and journalistic novel. He earned this title thanks to the hidden meanings that the author gradually introduced. He was not a writer either, he simply used a literary form that everyone understood to spread his political views and express his deep thoughts about a just social structure of tomorrow. In his work, it is precisely the journalistic intensity that is obvious, it is philosophical issues that are highlighted, and the fictional plot serves only as a cover from the close attention of the censors.

What is the novel about?

It's time to tell what the book "What is to be done?" The action begins with the fact that an unknown person committed suicide by shooting himself and falling into the river. It turned out to be a certain Dmitry Lopukhov, a progressive-minded young man who was pushed to this desperate act by love and friendship.

The essence of the prehistory "What to do" is as follows: the main character Vera lives with an ignorant and rude family, a calculating and cruel mother has established her own rules there. She wants to marry her daughter to the rich son of the mistress of the house where her husband works as a manager. An avaricious woman does not shun any means, she can even sacrifice the honor of her daughter. A moral and proud girl is looking for salvation from her brother's tutor, student Lopukhov. He is secretly engaged in her education, sparing a bright head. He also arranges for her to escape from home under the auspices of a fictitious marriage. In fact, young people live like brother and sister, there are no love feelings between them.

"Spouses" often visit a society of like-minded people, where the heroine meets Lopukhov's best friend, Kirsanov. Alexander and Vera are imbued with mutual sympathy, but they cannot be together, as they are afraid of hurting the feelings of a friend. Dmitry became attached to his "wife", discovered a multifaceted and strong personality in her, engaged in her education. A girl, for example, does not want to sit on his neck and wants to arrange her life on her own, opening a sewing workshop, where women in trouble could honestly earn. With the help of loyal friends, she realizes her dream, and a gallery of female images with life stories opens up before us, characterizing a vicious environment where the weaker sex has to fight for survival and defend honor.

Dmitry feels that he is interfering with his friends, and fakes his own suicide, so as not to stand in their way. He loves and respects his wife, but he understands that she will be happy only with Kirsanov. Naturally, no one knows about his plans, everyone sincerely mourns his death. But from a number of hints from the author, we understand that Lopukhov calmly left abroad and returned from there in the final, reuniting with his comrades.

A separate line of meaning is the company's acquaintance with Rakhmetov, a man of a new formation who embodies the ideal of a revolutionary, according to Chernyshevsky (he came to Vera on the day she received a note about her husband's suicide). It is not the hero's actions that are revolutionary, but his very essence. The author tells about him in detail, reporting that he sold the estate and led a Spartan lifestyle, just to help his people. The true meaning of the book is hidden in his image.

The main characters and their characteristics

First of all, the novel is notable for its characters, and not for the plot, which was needed to distract the attention of the censors. Chernyshevsky in his work "What to Do" draws images of strong people, "salt of the earth", smart, decisive, courageous and honest people, on whose shoulders later the frantic machine of revolution will rush at full speed. These are the images of Kirsanov, Lopukhov, Vera Pavlovna, who are the central characters of the book. All of them are constant participants in the action in the work. But above them the image of Rakhmetov stands alone. In contrast to him and the trinity "Lopukhov, Kirsanov, Vera Pavlovna" the writer wanted to show the "usualness" of the latter. In the last chapters, he brings clarity and literally chews up his idea for the reader:

“At the height at which they stand, all people must stand, can stand. Higher natures, which you and I cannot keep up with, my pathetic friends, higher natures are not like that. I showed you a light outline of the profile of one of them: you see the wrong features "

1. Rakhmetov- the main character of the novel "What is to be done?" Already in the middle of 1917, he began his transformation into a "special person", before that he was "an ordinary, good, high school student who finished the course." Having managed to appreciate all the "delights" of a free student's life, he quickly lost interest in them: he wanted something more, meaningful, and fate brought him to Kirsanov, who helped him to embark on the path of rebirth. He began to greedily absorb knowledge from all sorts of areas, read books "drunkenly", train physical strength with hard work, gymnastics and lead a Spartan lifestyle to strengthen his will: give up luxury in clothes, sleep on felt, there is only that can afford the common people. For closeness with the people, determination, developed strength among people, he acquired the nickname "Nikita Lomov", in honor of the famous barge haule, distinguished by his physical capabilities. Among his friends, they began to call him a "rigorist" because "he accepted the original principles in material, moral, and mental life," and later "they developed into a complete system, which he adhered to unswervingly." This is an extremely purposeful and fruitful person who works for the good of others' happiness and limits his own, I am content with little.
2. Vera Pavlovna- the main character of the novel "What to do", a beautiful swarthy woman with long dark hair. In her family, she felt like a stranger, because her mother tried to marry her profitably at any cost. Although she was characterized by calmness, poise and thoughtfulness, in this situation she showed cunning, inflexibility and willpower. She pretended to favor courtship, but in fact was looking for a way out of the trap set by her mother. Under the influence of education and a good environment, she is transformed and becomes much smarter, more interesting and stronger. Even her beauty blossoms, as does her soul. Now we have before us a self-confident and intellectually developed woman of a new type, who runs a business and provides for herself. This is the ideal of a lady, according to Chernyshevsky.
3. Lopukhov Dmitry Sergeevich- medical student, husband and liberator of Vera. He is distinguished by composure, a sophisticated mind, cunning, and at the same time, responsiveness, kindness, sensitivity. He sacrifices his career to save a stranger, and even limits his freedom for her. He is calculating, pragmatic and restrained, his entourage appreciates efficiency and education in him. As you can see, under the influence of love, the hero also becomes a romantic, because again he radically changes his life for the sake of a woman, staging suicide. This act betrays him a strong strategist who calculates everything in advance.
4. Alexander Matveevich Kirsanov- the beloved of Vera. He is a kind, intelligent, sympathetic young man, always ready to meet friends halfway. He opposes his feelings for the wife of a friend, does not allow him to destroy their relationship. For example, he stops visiting their house for a long time. The hero cannot betray Lopukhov's trust, both of them "with their breasts, without connections, without acquaintances, paved their way for themselves." The character is decisive and firm, and this masculinity does not prevent him from having a delicate taste (for example, he loves opera). By the way, it was he who inspired Rakhmetov to the feat of revolutionary self-denial.

The main characters of "What to do" are noble, decent, honest. There are not so many such characters in literature, and there is nothing to say about life, but Chernyshevsky goes further and introduces an almost utopian character, thereby showing that decency is far from the limit of personality development, that people have crumbled in their aspirations and goals, that you can be even better, harder, stronger. Everything is cognized in comparison, and by adding the image of Rakhmetov, the writer raises the bar of perception for readers. This is exactly what, in his opinion, a real revolutionary looks like, capable of leading the Kirsanovs and Lopukhovs. They are strong and smart, but not mature enough for decisive independent action.

Theme

• Love theme... Chernyshevsky in the novel "What to do" reveals the favorite motive of the writers in a new role. Now the extra link in the love triangle self-destructs and sacrifices its interests as a sacrifice for the reciprocity of the remaining parties. In this utopia, a person controls his feelings as much as possible, sometimes even, it seems, and completely refuses them. Lopukhov ignores vanity, male pride, feelings for Vera, just to please friends and at the same time provide them with happiness without guilt. This perception of love is too far from reality, but we take it at the expense of the author's innovation, who presented a hackneyed theme in such a fresh and original way.
• Strength of will... The hero of the novel "What to do" has curbed in himself almost all passions: he gave up alcohol, society of women, stopped wasting time on entertainment, being engaged only in "other people's affairs or nobody's business in particular."
• Indifference and responsiveness... If Vera's mother, Marya Aleksevna, was indifferent to the fate of her daughter and thought only about the material side of the family's life, then an outsider, Lopukhov, without any ulterior motive sacrifices his bachelor peace and career for the girl. So Chernyshevsky draws a line between the old-regime bourgeoisie with a petty greedy soul and representatives of a new generation, pure and disinterested in their thoughts.
• Revolution theme... The need for change is expressed not only in the image of Rakhmetov, but also in the dreams of Vera Pavlovna, where the meaning of life is revealed to her in symbolic visions: it is necessary to lead people out of the dungeon, where they are imprisoned by conventions and a tyrannical regime. The writer considers enlightenment to be the basis of the new free world; it is from it that the heroine's happy life begins.
• Education theme... New people in the novel "What to do" are educated and smart, they devote most of their time to learning. But this does not exhaust their impulse: they try to help others and put their efforts into helping the people in the fight against age-old ignorance.

Problematic

Many writers and public figures even after a while mentioned this book. Chernyshevsky understood the spirit of that time and successfully developed these thoughts further, creating a real memo to the Russian revolutionary. The problematic in the novel "What to do" turned out to be painfully urgent and topical: the author touched upon the problem of social and gender inequality, topical political problems and even imperfections of the mentality.

• Women's question. The problems in the novel "What to do", first of all, concern women and their social disorder in the realities of tsarist Russia. They have nowhere to go to work, nothing to feed themselves without a humiliating marriage of convenience or even more humiliating earnings on a yellow ticket. The position of the governess is not much better: no one will do anything to the owner of the house for harassment, if he is a noble person. So Vera would have fallen victim to the officer's lust, if it had not been saved by progress in the person of Lopukhov. He treated the girl differently, as an equal. This attitude is the key to the prosperity and independence of the weaker sex. And the point here is not in rabid feminism, but in the banal opportunity to provide for oneself and the family in case the marriage did not work out or the husband died. The writer complains about the powerlessness and helplessness of women, and not about the underestimated superiority of one sex over the other.
• Monarchy crisis. Ever since the uprising on Senate Square in 1825, ideas about the failure of the autocracy have ripened in the minds of the Decembrists, but then the people were not ready for upheavals of this magnitude. Subsequently, the thirst for revolution only strengthened and with each new generation it became stronger, which could not be said about the monarchy, which fought this dissent as best it could, but, as you know, by 1905 it swayed itself, and in the 17th it voluntarily surrendered its positions Provisional Government.
• The problem of moral choice. Kirsanov runs into her when he realizes his feelings for his friend's wife. Vera constantly feels her, starting with a failed "profitable marriage" and ending with a relationship with Alexander. Lopukhov also faces a choice: to leave everything as it is, or to act fairly? All the heroes of the novel "What to do" withstand the test and make an impeccable decision.
• Poverty problem. It is the depressing financial situation that leads Vera's mother to moral degradation. Marya Alekseevna cares about "real dirt", that is, she thinks how to survive in a country where she is not considered anything without a title and wealth? Her thoughts do not burden her with excesses, but worries about her daily bread. Constant need reduced her spiritual needs to a minimum, leaving no space or time for them.
• The problem of social inequality. Vera's mother, not sparing her daughter's honor, lures officer Storeshnikov to make him her son-in-law. There was not a drop of dignity left in her, because she was born and lived in a rigid hierarchy, where those who are lower are wordless slaves to those who are higher. She will consider it fortunate if the master's son dishonors her daughter, if only he would marry after that. Such an upbringing disgusts Chernyshevsky, and he caustically ridicules him.

The meaning of the novel

The author created a role model for young people to show how to behave. Chernyshevsky gave Russia the image of Rakhmetov, in which most of the answers to the burning questions "what to do", "who to be", "what to strive for" are collected - Lenin saw this and took a number of actions that led to a successful coup, otherwise he would not spoke of the book so enthusiastically. That is, the main idea of ​​the novel "What to do" is an enthusiastic hymn to a new type of active person who can solve the problems of his people. The writer not only criticized the society of his day, but also suggested ways of solving those conflict situations that were torn apart by him. In his opinion, it was necessary to do as Rakhmetov did: give up selfishness and class arrogance, help ordinary people not only with words, but with rubles, participate in large and global projects that can really change the situation.

A real revolutionary, according to Chernyshevsky, is obliged to live the life that an ordinary person lives. People in power should not be elevated to a separate elite caste, as is often the case. They are the servants of the people who appointed them. Something like this can be expressed the position of the author, which he conveyed to his "special" hero and which he wants to convey through him to the reader. Rakhmetov is the accumulation of all positive qualities, one might say, "superman", like in Nietzsche. With the help of it, the idea of ​​the novel "What to do" is expressed - bright ideals and a firm determination to defend them.

Nevertheless, Chernyshevsky warns the reader that the path of these people is thorny and "meager in personal joys", "to which they are calling you." These are people trying to be reborn from a person into an abstract idea, devoid of personal feelings and passions, without which life is hard and joyless. The writer warns against admiration for such Rakhmetovs, calling them ridiculous and pitiful, because they are trying to embrace the immensity, exchange fate full of earthly blessings for duty and unrequited service to society. But in the meantime, the author understands that without them life would completely lose its taste and "sour". Rakhmetov is not a romantic hero, but a completely real person whom the creator views from different angles.

The novel by N. G. Chernyshevsky "What is to be done?" created by him in the chamber of the Peter and Paul Fortress in the period from 12/14/1862 to 04/04/1863. in three and a half months. From January to April 1863, parts of the manuscript were transferred to the commission on the writer's case for censoring. The censorship found nothing reprehensible and allowed the publication. The oversight was soon discovered and the censor Beketov was removed from office, but the novel was already published in the Sovremennik magazine (1863, No. 3-5). The bans on the issues of the magazine did not lead to anything and the book was distributed throughout the country in "samizdat".

In 1905, under Emperor Nicholas II, the ban on publication was lifted, and in 1906 the book was published in a separate edition. The reaction of readers to the novel is interesting, as they are divided in opinions into two camps. Some supported the author, others considered the novel devoid of artistry.

Analysis of the work

1. Socio-political renewal of society through revolution. In the book, the author, due to censorship, could not expand on this topic in more detail. It is given by half-hints in the description of Rakhmetov's life and in the 6th chapter of the novel.

2. Moral and psychological. That a person with the power of his mind is able to create in himself new given moral qualities. The author describes the whole process from small (the fight against despotism in the family) to large-scale, that is, revolution.

3. Women's emancipation, norms of family morality. This topic is revealed in the history of Vera's family, in the relationship of three young people before Lopukhov's alleged suicide, in Vera's first 3 dreams.

4. Future socialist society. This is a dream of a beautiful and bright life, which the author unfolds in the 4th dream of Vera Pavlovna. Here is the vision of lightened labor with the help of technical means, that is, the technogenic development of production.

(Chernyshevsky writes a novel in the chamber of the Peter and Paul Fortress)

The pathos of the novel is the propaganda of the idea of ​​transforming the world through revolution, the preparation of minds and the expectation of it. Moreover, the desire to actively participate in it. The main goal of the work is the development and implementation of a new method of revolutionary education, the creation of a textbook on the formation of a new worldview for every thinking person.

Story line

In the novel, it actually covers the main idea of ​​the work. It was not for nothing that at first even the censors considered the novel nothing more than a love story. The beginning of the work, deliberately entertaining, in the spirit of French novels, aimed to confuse the censorship and, along the way, attract the attention of the majority of the reading public. The plot is based on an uncomplicated love story, which hides the social, philosophical and economic problems of that time. Aesop's narrative language is permeated through and through with the ideas of the coming revolution.

The plot is as follows. There is an ordinary girl Vera Pavlovna Rozalskaya, whom the selfish mother tries in every possible way to pass off as a rich man. Trying to avoid this fate, the girl resorts to the help of her friend Dmitry Lopukhov and enters into a fictitious marriage with him. Thus, she gains freedom and leaves her parents' house. In search of earnings, Vera opens a sewing workshop. This is not an ordinary workshop. There is no hired labor here, women workers have their share of the profits, therefore they are interested in the prosperity of the enterprise.

Vera and Aleksandr Kirsanov are mutually in love. To free his imaginary wife from remorse, Lopukhov fakes a suicide (it is with his description that the whole action begins) and leaves for America. There he acquired a new name, Charles Beaumont, became an agent of an English firm and, fulfilling its assignment, came to Russia to acquire a stearic plant from the industrialist Polozov. Lopukhov at Polozov's house meets his daughter Katya. They fall in love with each other, the affair ends with a wedding. Now Dmitry is announced to the Kirsanov family. Friendship begins with families, they settle in the same house. Around them, a circle of "new people" is formed who want to arrange their own and social life in a new way. Lopukhov-Beumont's wife Ekaterina Vasilievna also joins the business, arranges a new sewing workshop. Such is the happy ending.

main characters

The central character of the novel is Vera Rozalskaya. She is especially sociable, belongs to the type of "honest girls" who are not ready to compromise for a profitable marriage without love. The girl is romantic, but, despite this, she is quite modern, with good administrative inclinations, as they would say today. Therefore, she was able to interest the girls and organize a sewing production and more than one.

Another character in the novel is Dmitry Sergeevich Lopukhov, a student at the Medical Academy. Somewhat closed, prefers loneliness. He is honest, decent and noble. It was these qualities that prompted him to help Vera in her difficult situation. For her sake, he drops out of his last year and begins to engage in private practice. Considered the official husband of Vera Pavlovna, he behaves towards her in the highest degree decent and noble. The apogee of his nobility is his decision to stage his own death in order to allow Kirsanov and Vera, who love each other, to unite their fates. Just like Vera, he refers to the formation of new people. Smart, adventurous. This can be judged if only because the British firm entrusted him with a very serious matter.

Kirsanov Alexander is the husband of Vera Pavlovna, Lopukhov's best friend. He is very impressed by his attitude towards his wife. He not only loves her dearly, but is also looking for something to do for her in which she could fulfill herself. The author feels deep sympathy for him and speaks of him as a courageous person who knows how to carry on to the end the work he has undertaken. At the same time, the person is honest, deeply decent and noble. Not knowing about the true relationship of Vera and Lopukhov, falling in love with Vera Pavlovna, disappears from their house for a long time, so as not to disturb the peace of his loved ones. Only Lopukhov's illness compels him to appear for the treatment of a friend. The fictitious husband, realizing the state of the lovers, imitates his death and makes room for Kirsanov next to Vera. Thus, lovers find happiness in family life.

(In the photo, the artist Karnovich-Valois in the role of Rakhmetov, the play "New People")

A close friend of Dmitry and Alexander, the revolutionary Rakhmetov is the most significant hero of the novel, although little space is allotted to him in the novel. In the ideological outline of the narrative he played a special role and is devoted to a separate digression in chapter 29. The person is extraordinary in all respects. At the age of 16, he left the university for three years and wandered around Russia in search of adventure and character education. This is a person with already formed principles in all spheres of life, in material, physical and spiritual. At the same time, he has an ebullient nature. He sees his future life in serving people and prepares for this, tempering his spirit and body. He even refused his beloved woman, because love can limit his actions. He would like to live like most people, but he cannot afford it.

In Russian literature, Rakhmetov became the first practical revolutionary. Opinions about him were completely opposite, from indignation to admiration. This is the ideal image of a revolutionary hero. But today, from the standpoint of knowledge of history, such a person could only arouse sympathy, since we know how accurately history has proved the truth of the words of the Emperor of France Napoleon Bonaparte: "Revolutions are conceived by heroes, performed by fools, and scoundrels use its fruits." Perhaps the voiced opinion does not quite fit into the framework of the image and characteristics of Rakhmetov formed for decades, but this is really so. The above does not in the least detract from the qualities of Rakhmetov, because he is a hero of his time.

According to Chernyshevsky, using the example of Vera, Lopukhov and Kirsanov, he wanted to show ordinary people of the new generation, of whom there are thousands. But without the image of Rakhmetov, the reader could have a deceptive opinion about the main characters of the novel. According to the writer, all people should be like these three heroes, but the highest ideal that all people should strive for is the image of Rakhmetov. And with this I completely agree.