Biological and geological cyphans of substances. Great Oil and Gas Encyclopedia

26.09.2019

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In the biosphere there is a global (large, or geological) cycle of substances, which existed before the emergence of the first living organisms. It is involved in a wide variety of chemical elements. Geological circulation is carried out due to solar, gravitational, tectonic and space types of energy.

With the advent of a living agent on the basis of a geological circulation, a cycle of organic matter appeared - a small (biotic, or biological) cycle.

Biotic circulation substance is a continuous, cyclic, uneven in time and space process of moving and converting substances occurring with the direct participation of living organisms. It is a continuous process of creating and destruction of the organic matter and is implemented with the participation of all three groups of organisms: producers, consumers and reasons. About 40 biogenic elements are involved in biotic circulation. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, iron, potassium, calcium, and magnesium have the greatest importance for living organisms.

As living matter develops from the geological circulation, more and more elements that enter the new, biological circulation are constantly recovered. The total mass of the ashons involved annually into the biotic cycle of substances only on land is about 8 billion tons. This is several times the mass of products of eruption of all volcanoes of the world throughout the year. The speed of the cycle of substances in the biosphere is different. The living substance of the biosphere is updated on average for 8 years, phytoplankton's mass in the ocean is updated daily. All oxygen of the biosphere passes through a living substance for 2000, and carbon dioxide - for 300 years.

In ecosystems, local biotic cycles are carried out, and in the biosphere - biogeochemical migration cycles of atoms, which not only associate all three outer shells of the planet in a single whole, but also determine the continuous evolution of its composition.

Atmosphere of hydrosphere

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Live substance

THE SOIL

Evolution of the biosphere

The biosphere appeared with the emergence of the first living organisms about 3.5 billion years ago. In the course of the development of life, it changed. The stages of the biosphere evolution can be allocated with the characteristics of the type of ecosystems.

1. The emergence and development of life in water. The stage is associated with the existence of aquatic ecosystems. Oxygen in the atmosphere was absent.

2. The output of living organisms on land, the development of the ground-air environment and the soil and the appearance of ground ecosystems. This became possible due to the appearance of oxygen in the atmosphere and the ozone screen. 2.5 billion years ago occurred.

3. The emergence of a person, turning it into a biosocial being and the emergence of anthropowoys, 1 million years ago occurred.

4. The transition of the biosphere under the influence of the reasonable activity of a person in a new quality condition - in the nosphere.

Noosphere

The highest stage of the development of the biosphere is noosphere - the stage of reasonable regulation of relations between man and nature. This term introduced the French philosopher E. Lerua in 1927. He believed that the noosphere includes human society with its industry, language and other attributes of reasonable activities. In the 30-40s. XX century V.I. Vernadsky developed materialistic ideas about the noosphere. He believed that the noosphere arises as a result of the interaction of the biosphere and society, was managed due to the close relationship of the laws of nature, thinking and socio-economic laws of the Company, and emphasized that

noosphere (interactions of the mind) - stage of development of the biosphere, when the reasonable activity of people will become the main, determining the factor in its sustainable development.

Noosphere - a new, highest stage of the biosphere, associated with the emergence and development of humanity in it, which, knowing the laws of nature and improving the technique, becomes the largest power comparable to scale with geological, and begins to have a decisive effect on the course of processes on Earth, deeply changing it By your work. The formation and development of humanity was expressed in the emergence of new forms of metabolism and energy between society and the nature, in an ever-increasing impact of a person at the biosphere. The noosphere comes when mankind with science will be able to intelligently manage natural and social processes. Therefore, it is impossible to consider a special shell of the Earth.

The science of the relationship management between human society and nature is called Noogenic.

The main goal of novels is the planning of the present in the name of the future, and its main tasks are the correction of violations in human and nature relations caused by the progress of technology, conscious management of the evolution of the biosphere. The planned, scientifically based use of natural resources should be formed, providing for the restoration of substances into the cycle of the substances that the person violated, as opposed to a spontaneous, predatory attitude towards nature, leading to the deterioration of the environment. This requires a sustainable development of society that meets the needs of the present time and does not threaten the ability of future generations to satisfy their needs.

Currently on the planet formed biotechnosphere - part of the biosphere, a fundamentally transformed by a person in engineering and technical structures: cities, factories and factories, careers and mines, roads, dams and reservoirs, etc.

Biosphere and man

The biosphere for a person is and the habitat, and the source of natural resources.

Natural resources – natural objects and phenomena that a person uses in the process of labor. They provide a person to food, clothes, dwelling. According to depletion, they are divided into exhausted and inexhaustible . Exhausable Resources are divided by renewable and non-renovable . Unfortunately refer to those resources that are not reborn (or resumed hundreds of times more slowly than spending): oil, stone coal, metal ores and most minerals. Renewable natural resources - soil, vegetable and animal world, mineral raw materials (soda salt). These resources are constantly restored at different speeds: animals - several years, forests - 60-80 years old, soils that have fallen fertility - for several millennia. Exceeding the rate of spending on the rate of reproduction leads to the complete disappearance of the resource.

Inexhaustible Resources include water, climatic (atmospheric air and wind energy) and cosmic: solar radiation, energy of marine tides and sings. However, growing environmental pollution requires the implementation of environmental measures to preserve these resources.

Satisfying human needs is unthinkable without the use of natural resources.

All types of human activity in the biosphere can be combined into four forms.

1. Change the structure of the earth's surface(Land breakdown, drainage of water bodies, cutting down, construction of channels). Humanity becomes powerful geological force. A person uses 75% sushi, 15% of river water, 20 hectares of forests will be cut down every minute.

· Geological and geomorphological changes - the intensification of the processes of formation of ravines, the emergence and increase in the lands and landslides.

· Complex (landscaped) changes - violation of the integrity and natural structure of landscapes, the uniqueness of nature monuments, loss of productive lands, desertification.

Circle of sulfur and phosphorus - typical sedimentary bio-geochemical cycle. Such cycles are easily violated from different kinds of influences and part of the exchange material comes out of the cycle. It can be returned to the circulation again only as a result of geological processes or by extracting biofilic components with a living substance. [...]

The cycle of substances and the conversion of energy provide dynamic equilibrium and stability of the biosphere as a whole and its separate parts. At the same time, in a general single cycle, a circulation of solid and water, occurring as a result of the action of abiotic factors (large geological cycle), as well as a small biotic cycle of substances in solid, liquid and gaseous phases, occurring with the participation of living organisms. [...]

Carbon cycle. Carbon is one of the most, probably often mentioned chemical elements when considering geological, biological, and in recent years and technical problems. [...]

The cycle of substances is the multiple participation of substances in the processes occurring in the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the lithosphere, including those of their layers that are included in the Biosphere of the Planet. At the same time, two main cyphans are distinguished: large (geological) and small (biogenic and biochemical). [...]

Geological and biological cyphans are largely closed, which cannot be said about anthropogenic cycle. Therefore, they often say not about anthropogenic cycle, but about anthropogenic metabolism. The implinedness of the anthropogenic cycle of substances leads to the depletion of natural resources and pollution of the environment - the main reasons for all environmental problems of humanity. [...]

Courses of the main biogenic substances and elements. Consider the cyphans most significant for living organisms of substances and elements (Fig. 3-8). The cycle of water refers to a large geological; And the cycle of biogenic elements (carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur and other biogenic elements) - to the small biogeochemistry. [...]

The cycle of water between the land and the ocean through the atmosphere relates to a large geological circulation. Water evaporates from the surface of the ocean and is either transferred to land, where precipitation falls in the form of precipitation, which are returned to the ocean in the form of surface and underground flow, or falls in the form of precipitation to the surface of the ocean. In the cycle of water on Earth, more than 500 thousand km3 of water participates annually. The water cycle as a whole plays a major role in the formation of natural conditions on our planet. Taking into account the transpiration of water by plants and absorb it in the Biogeoi cycle, the entire supply of water on Earth decomposes and is restored for 2 million years. [...]

Crooked phosphorus. The bulk of phosphorus is contained in rocks formed in past geological era. In the biogeochemical circulation, phosphorus is included as a result of the weathering processes of rocks. [...]

Gas type circulation are more perfect, as they have a large exchange rate, and therefore are capable of fast self-regulation. The circulation of the sedimentary type is less perfect, they are more inert, as the bulk of the substance is contained in the reserve fund of the earth's crust in the "inaccessible" living organisms. Such cyphans are easily disturbed from various kinds of influences, and part of the exchange material comes out of the cycle. It can be returned in a circuit again only as a result of geological processes or by extracting a living substance. However, remove the substances from the earth's crust desired by living organisms than from the atmosphere. [...]

The geological cycle is clearly manifested by the example of the "cycle of water and circulation of the atmosphere. It is estimated that up to half the energy coming from the Sun is spent on evaporation of water. Its evaporation from the surface of the Earth is compensated by precipitation. At the same time, water evaporates more from the ocean than returned with precipitation, and on land there is a reverse - precipitation falls more than water evaporates. Surplus it flows into rivers and lakes, and from there - again to the ocean. In the process of geological circulation, the aggregate water condition (liquid; solid - snow, ice; gaseous - pair) changes repeatedly. The greatest circulation is observed in a vapor state. Along with water in the geological circulation, on the scale of the entire planet from one place to another, other minerals are transferred. [...]

The water cycle. At the beginning of the section, its geological cycle was considered. It is mainly reduced to the processes of evaporation of water from the surface of the earth and the ocean and falling on them precipitation. Within individual ecosystems, additional processes complicating a large cycle of water (interception, evapotranspiration and infiltration) occur. [...]

Geological cycles. The relative position and outlines of the continents and the ocean bottom are constantly changing. Within the upper shells of the Earth, there is a continuous gradual replacement of some rocks by others, called a large cycle of substance. The geological processes of the formation and destruction of the mountains are the greatest energy processes in the Earth's biosphere. [...]

Createness of substances (on Earth) - repeated processes of transformation and displacement of substances in nature, having more or less cyclic. General K.V. It consists of separate processes (cycle of water, nitrogen, carbon, etc. substances and chemical elements), which are not fully reversible, as there is scattering of the substance, its withdrawal, disposal, the change in the composition, etc., distinguish between biological, biological , Geological K.V., as well as the circulation of individual chemical elements (Fig. 15) and water. Man's activities at the present stage of development mainly increases the intensity of K.V. And influences, commensurate power with the scale of natural planetary processes. [...]

The biogeochemical circulation is the movement and transformation of chemical elements through the oblique and organic nature in the active participation of the living matter. Chemical elements are circulated in the biosphere along various paths of the biological circulation: absorbed by a living matter and charged with energy, then leaving the living agent, giving the accumulated energy into the external environment. Such a large or less closed paths were named V.I. Vernadsky "Biogeochemical Cycles". These cycles can be divided into two main types: 1) the cycle of gaseous substances with a reserve fund in the atmosphere or hydrosphere (ocean) and 2) a sedimentary cycle with The reserve fund in the earth's crust. In all biogeochemical cycles, a living substance plays an active role. On this occasion, V.I. Vernadsky (1965, p. 127) wrote: "The living thing covers and rebuilds all chemical processes of the biosphere, its effective energy is huge. Live The substance has the most powerful geological force growing with time. "To the main cycles include carbon cycles, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur and biogenic cations. Look below as an example, the main features of the cycle of typical biofil elements (carbon, oxygen and phosphorus) , playing a significant role in the life of the biosphere. [...]

The geological circulation (a large cycle of substances in nature) is a circulation of substances by the driving force of which are exogenous and endogenous geological processes. [...]

Because of the geological changes in the face of the Earth, part of the substance of the biosphere can be excluded from this cycle. For example, such biogenic precipitations, like stone coal, oil for many millennia can be preserved in the thickness of the earth's crust, but in principle their re-inclusion in the biosphere cycle is not excluded. [...]

Knowledge of cycles of substances on Earth has a great practical meaning, as they significantly affect the human life and, at the same time, are influenced by a person. The consequences of these effects have become comparable to the results of geological processes. New ways of migration of elements arise, new chemical compounds appear, the speed of turnover of substances in the biosphere is significantly changed. [...]

A large cycle of substances in nature (geological) is due to the interaction of solar energy with the deep energy of the Earth and redistributes the substances between the biosphere and deeper horizons of the Earth. This cycle in the system "Magmatic breeds - sedimentary rocks - metamorphic rocks (converted by temperature and pressure) - magmatic rocks" occurs due to the processes of magmatism, metamorphism, lithogenesis and dynamics of the earth's crust (Fig. 6.2). The symbol of the cycle of substances is a spiral: each new cycle of the cycle does not repeat the old one, and it makes something new that over time leads to very significant changes. [...]

A large geological circulation involves sedimentary rocks deep into the earth's crust for a long time turning the elements contained in them from the biological circulation system. In the course of geological history, transformed sedimentary rocks, again being on the surface of the Earth, gradually destroy the activities of living organisms, water and air and are again included in the biosphere cycle. [...]

Thus, the geological circulation of substances proceeds without the participation of living organisms and performs the redistribution of the substance between the biosphere and deeper layers of the Earth. [...]

Thus, the geological cycle and cycle of rocks consists of: 1) weathering, 2) of precipitation formation, 3) of the formation of sedimentary rocks, 4) metamorphism, 5) magmatization. The exit to the daily surface of the magma and the formation of magmatic rocks repeats the whole cycle first. The full cycle can be interrupted at various stages (3 or 4) if, as a result of tectonic raises and denunities, rock rocks will be released on the day surface and subjected to redevelopment. [...]

The geological activity of bacteria is enormous. Bacteria take the most active part in the cycle of substances in nature, all organic compounds and a significant part of inorganic are exposed to significant changes. And this cycle of substances is the basis for the existence of life on Earth. [...]

In the hydrosphere, the suspension of the carbon cycle is associated with the inclusion of CO2 into the composition of the SASOZ (limestone, chalk, corals). In this embodiment, carbon falls out of the circuit to whole geological epochs and is not included in the concept of biosphere. However, the raising of organogenic rocks is higher than the sea level leads to the resumption of carbon cycle due to the leaching of limestones and their similar rocks with atmospheric precipitation, as well as a biogenic way - the effects of lichen, plant roots. [...]

The conclusion of the carbon part of the natural circulation of the ecosystem and "reservation" in the form of fossil reserves of the organic matter in the depths of the Earth is an important feature of the process under consideration. In distant geological epochs, a significant part of the photosynthenered organic matter was not used either by consultations nor Rindunts, but accumulated in the form of Derita. Later, the Detriton layers were buried under the layers of various mineral precipitation, where under the action of high temperatures and pressure per millions of years turned into oil, coal and natural gas (depending on the source material, duration and conditions of stay in the ground). Such processes occur currently, but significantly less intensively. Their result is the formation of peat. [...]

Biogeochemical cycle [from gr. KYKLOS - Circle], biogeochemical circulation - wearing cyclic nature of the exchange and transformation processes of the chemical element between the components of the biosphere (from inorganic shape through a living substance again into inorganic). Performed using predominantly solar energy (iPhotosynthesis) and partially energy of chemical reactions (chemosynthesis). See Court of Substances. Biological cycle of substances. Geological cycle of substances. [...]

All marked and many other remaining "for the scenes" counter geological processes, ambitious in their end results, firstly, interrelated and, secondly, are the main mechanism that ensures the development of a lithosphere, which does not cease to this day, its participation In a constant cycle and transformation of substance and energy, the physical state of the lithosphere observed is supported. [...]

All these planetary processes on Earth are closely intertwined, forming a common, global cycle of substances that redistributing energy coming from the Sun. It is carried out through the system of small circulation. Tectonic processes due to volcanic activities and movement of oceanic plates in the earth's crust are connected to large and small cyphans. As a result, a large geological cycle of substances is carried out on Earth. [...]

Soil is an integral component of ground biogeocenoses. It carries out the interface (interaction) of large geological and small biological circulation of substances. Soil is a unique GOGO complexity of a physical composition. Natural education. The soil substance is represented by four physical phases: solid (mineral and organic particles), liquid (soil solution), gaseous (soil air) and alive (organisms). For soil, a complex spatial organization and differentiation of features, properties and processes is characterized. [...]

Due to the undercessant functioning of the system "atmosphere-soil-plant-animal-microorganisms" there was a bio-geochemical circulation of many chemical elements and their compounds covering land, the atmosphere and intra-engineant water. Its total characteristics are comparable to the total river flow of sushi, the total flow of the substance from the upper mantle in the Biosphere of the Planet. That is why a living agent on Earth has already many millions of years a factor of geological significance. [...]

Biota biosphere determines the predominant part of chemical transformations on the planet. Hence the judgment V.I. Vernadsky about the huge transforming geological role of a living matter. Throughout the organic evolution, the living organisms are thousandfold (for different cycles from 103 to 105) missed through themselves, through their organs, tissues, cells, blood is the whole atmosphere, the entire volume of the world's ocean, the bble part of the soil mass, a huge mass of minerals. And not only "missed, but in accordance with their needs modified the entire earthly environment. [...]

Of course, all non-repaired resources are exhausted. These include the overwhelming majority of fossils: mountainous materials, ores, minerals that have arisen in the geological history of the Earth, as well as the products of the ancient biosphere, fossil fuels and sedimentary carbonates and sedimentary carbonates. Some mineral resources are now slowly formed in geochemical processes in the depths of the ocean or on the surface of the earth's crust. In relation to minerals, the availability and quality of the resource, as well as the quantitative relationship between unknown, but alleged resources (77), estimated potential (77), real explored (P) and operational (E) reserves, is usually N\u003e P\u003e P\u003e E (Fig. 6.6). [...]

The study of the ocean as a physical and chemical system moved much faster than its study as a biological system. Hypotheses about the origin and geological history of the oceans, initially speculative, acquired a solid theoretical basis. [...]

Live organisms are generally a very powerful regulator of the streams of substance on the earth's surface, selectively holding certain elements in the biological cycle. 'Every year in the biological cycle of nitrogen is involved in 6-20 times more than in geological, and phosphorus - at 3-30 times; At the same time, sulfur, on the contrary, is 2-4 times more in geological cycle than in biological (Table 4). [...]

The complex feedback system contributed not only to an increase in the species differentiation, but also to the formation of certain natural complexes having specifics depending on the conditions of the medium and the geological history of a particular part of the biosphere. Any combination of the biosphere is naturally interrelated organisms and inorganic components of the medium in which the cycle of substances is carried out, called the environmental system or ecosystem. [...]

Synthetic detergents (detergents, detergents). Make up an extensive group of artificial surfactants, which are produced worldwide in huge quantities. These substances in large volumes come into a geological environment with household wastewater. Most of them do not apply to toxicants, but synthetic detergents are able to destroy various ecosystems, violate the natural processes of geochemical cycle of substances in soils and groundwater. [...]

The bulk of carbon is accumulated in carbonate sediments of the ocean bottom (1.3 - 101V T), crystalline rocks (1.0 1016 t), in coal and oil (3.4 1015 ton). It is this carbon takes part in a slow geological cycle. Life on Earth and gas balance of the atmosphere is maintained by the relatively small amounts of carbon contained in vegetable (5,10 tons) and animals (5,109 tons) tissues in a small (biogenic) cycle. However, a person currently closes the cycle of substances intensively, including carbon. For example, it is estimated that the total biomass of all domestic animals already exceeds the biomass of all wild ground animals. The areas of cultivated plants are approaching the areas of natural biogeocenoses, and many cultural ecosystems on their productivity, continuously enhancing a person, are significantly superior to natural. [...]

Finding with wastewater in the reservoirs, phosphate saturates, and sometimes overshadows their ecological systems. Back to land, phosphorus in vivo is returned almost only with the litter and after the death of fishing birds. The absolute majority of phosphates forms bottom sediments, and the cycle enters into its very slow phase. Only geological processes occurring millions of years can really raise oceanic deposits of phosphates, after which the phosphorus is possible to repeatedly turn on the described circulation. [...]

The values \u200b\u200bcharacterizing the annual deposit of deposits from each continent are given in Table. 17. It is easy to see that the greatest soil loss is characteristic of Asia - continent with the most ancient civilizations and the strongest operation of the Earth. Although the rate of process is a changeable, during periods of minimal geological activity, the accumulation of dissolved mineral nutrients occurs on lowlands and in the oceans due to elevated areas. At the same time, local biological mechanisms of return acquire particular importance, thanks to which the loss of substances does not exceed their receipts from the underlying rocks (this was discussed when considering calcium cycle). In other words, the longer the vital elements will remain in this area, again and re-using the replacing generations of organisms, the less new material will be required from the outside. Unfortunately, as we have already noticed in the Phosphorian section, a person often violates this balance, usually inadvertently, and simply because it does not understand the entire complexity of the symbiosis between life and inorganic matter to the end. For example, it is now suggested (although it has not yet been proven) that dams that prevent the movement of salmon into the river to spawning, lead to a reduction in the number of not only salmon, but also non-pass fish, game and even to reduce wood products in some northern regions of the US West. When salmon is spawned and dying in the depths of the mainland, they leave there stock of valuable nutrients returned from the sea. The removal of large masses from the forest (the mineral substances contained in it are not returned to the soil in contrast to what happens in nature when the fallen trees decompose), no doubt, also imposes to the Highlands, usually in situations where the nutrient fund and without That is poor. [...]

The fifth function is the biogeochemical activity of mankind, covering the increasing amount of the earth's cortex for the needs of industry, transport, agriculture. This function takes a special place in the history of the globe and deserves an attentive relationship and study. Thus, all the living population of our planet is a living matter - is in a constant cycle of biofil chemical elements. The biological cycle of substances in the biosphere is associated with a large geological circulation (Fig. 12.20). [...]

Another process moving carbon is the formation of humus with the help of saprophages and subsequent mineralization of the substance under the action of mushrooms and bacteria. This is a very slow process, the speed of which is due to the amount of oxygen, the chemical composition of the soil, its temperature. With a lack of oxygen and high acidity, carbon accumulation occurs in the peat. Similar processes in remote geological epochs have formed deposits of coal and oil, which stopped the process of carbon cycle. [...]

As an example, consider the medium-forming role of the forest ecosystem. Forest products and biomass are inventories of organic matter and accumulated energy created in the process of photosynthesis by plants. The intensity of photosynthesis determines the absorption rate of carbon dioxide and the excretion of oxygen into the atmosphere. Thus, with the formation of 1 ta of vegetable products, 1,5-1.8 tons of CO2 is absorbed on average and 1.2-1.4 t 02. Biomass, including a dead organic matter, is the main tank of biogenic carbon. Part of this organic matter is derived from the cycle for a long time, forming geological sediments. [...]

Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1863-1945) - the great Russian scientist, academician, founder of biogeochemistry and the teachings about the biosphere. It is rightfully referred to by the largest universalists of world science. Scientific interests V.I. Vernadsky is extremely wide. He made a significant contribution to mineralogy, geochemistry, radio geology, crystallography; He conducted the first studies of the patterns of the composition, structure and migration of interacting elements and structures of the earth's crust, hydrosphere and atmosphere. In 1923, the theory was formulated on the leading role of living organisms in geochemical processes. In 1926, in the book "Biosphere" V.I. Vernadsky put forward a new concept of the biosphere and the role of a live matter in the cosmic and earthly cycle of substances. The conversion of nature as a result of human, activities are seen by V.I. Vernadsky as a powerful planetary process ("Scientific thought as a geological phenomenon", 1936) and as the possibility of processing the biosphere in the nosphere - the scope of the mind.

Before the occurrence of the biosphere on Earth there were three cyphans of substances: mineral cycle - moving magmatic products from depths to the surface and back; gas cycle - circulation of air masses periodically warmed by the Sun,the water cycle - evaporation of water and transferring it to air masses, falling out of precipitation (rain, snow). These three cyphans combine a single term - geological (abiotic) cycle. With the advent of life to gas, mineral and water cycle added biotic (biogenic) cycle - Createness of chemical elements carried out by the vital activity of organisms. Together with geological formed a single biogeochemical cycle Substances on Earth.

Geological circulation.

About half of the achievement of the surface of solar energy is spent on evaporation of water, weathering of rocks, dissolving minerals, movement of air masses and with them vapors of water, dust, solid weathering particles.

The movement of water and wind leads to soil erosion, moving, redistribution and accumulation of mechanical and chemical precipitation in the hydrosphere and lithosphere. This cycle is currently happening.

Of great interest is the water cycle. About 3.8 10 14 tons of water evaporates from the hydrosphere in one year, and only 3.4 10 14 tons of water returns to the aqueous shell of the Earth. The missing part falls on land. In total precipitation on the land drops around 1 10 14 tons, and about 0.6 10 14 tons of water evaporates. Excess water, resulting in a lithosphere, flow into the lake and river, and then to the global ocean (Fig. 2.4). Surface Stocks are approximately 0.2 10 14 tons, the remaining 0.2 10 14 tons of water come to the subsidized aquifers, where the water comes from rivers, lakes and the ocean, and also replenishes groundwater tanks.

biotic cycle. It is based on the synthesis of organic substances, followed by their destruction on source minerals. The processes of synthesis and destruction of organic substances are the foundation for the existence of a living matter and the main feature of the functioning of the biosphere.

The vital activity of any organism is impossible without metabolism with the environment. In the process of exchanging the body consumes and assimilates the necessary substances and allocates waste of vital activity, the size of our planet is not infinite, and ultimately all the useful substance would be recycled into useless garbage. However, in the process of evolution, a magnificent way out was found: in addition to organisms who know how to build a living agent of non-living, other organisms appear, decomposing this complex organic matter into source minerals, ready for new use. "The only way to give a limited number of infinite properties, - wrote V.R. Williams is to force it to rotate on a closed curve. "

The mechanism of interaction of alive and inanimate nature consists of engaging inanimate matter in the area of \u200b\u200blife. After a series of transformations of inanimate matter in living organisms, it returns to its former initial state. Such a circulation is possible due to the fact that living organisms contain the same chemical elements as non-fatal nature.

How does such a circulation occur? V. I. Vernadsky substantiated that the main converter of energy coming from space (mainly solar) is the green substance of plants. Only they are able to synthesize primary organic compounds under the influence of solar energy. The scientist calculated that the total surface area of \u200b\u200bthe green substance of plants absorbing energy, depending on the time of year ranges from 0.86 to 4.2% of the surface area of \u200b\u200bthe Sun. At the same time, the surface area of \u200b\u200bthe Earth

Animals for which are plants or other animals, synthesize new organic compounds in their body.

The remains of animals and plants serve food for worms, fungi and microorganisms, which ultimately turn them into the initial minerals, highlighting carbon dioxide. These minerals again serve as initial raw materials to create primary organic compounds by plants. So the circle is closed and the new movement of atoms begins.

At the same time, the cycle of substances is not absolutely closed. Some atoms come out of the cycle, secured and is organized by new forms of living organisms and their livelihoods. Penetrating into the lithospheric, hydrosphere and troposphere, living organisms produced and produce huge geochemical work on the movement and redistribution of existing substances and the creation of new ones. In this, the essence of the progressive development of the biosphere, since the sphere of biogeochemical cycles is expanding and the biosphere is strengthened. As V. I. Vernadsky noted, a constant biogenic movement of atoms in the form of "Vortex" is observed in the biosphere.

In contrast to the geological biotic circulation is characterized by minor energy consumption. As already noted, about 1% solar energy reaching the surface of the earth is consumed to create a primary organic matter. This energy is sufficient for the functioning of the most complex biogeochemical processes on the planet.

All substances on the planet are in the process of a circulation. Solar energy causes two cycle of substances on Earth: big (geological, biosphere)and small (biological).

A large cycle of substances in the biosphere is characterized by two important points: it is carried out throughout the geological development of the Earth and is a modern planetary process that takes leading participation in the further development of the biosphere.

The geological circulation is associated with the formation and destruction of rocks and the subsequent movement of destruction products - debris material and chemical elements. A significant role in these processes were played and continued to play the thermal properties of the surface of sushi and water: the absorption and reflection of sun rays, thermal conductivity and heat capacity. An unstable hydrothermal mode of the earth's surface together with the planetary atmospheric circulation system caused the geological circulation of substances, which at the initial stage of land development, along with endogenous processes, was associated with the formation of continents, oceans and modern geopa. With the formation of the biosphere in a large circulation, the products of the vital activity of organisms were included. The geological circulation supplies living organisms nutrition elements and largely determines the conditions for their existence.

magma, enjoying the surface of the lithosphere from the depths of the Earth, is exposed to decomposition, weathelation in the field of the biosphere. Weathered products are moving into a rolling state are demolished by water, the wind into low relief places fall into the rivers, the ocean and form powerful strata of sedimentary rocks, which over time, immersing depth in areas with elevated temperature and pressure, are subjected to metamorphosis, i.e. "Complete". With this melt, a new metamorphic breed occurs in the upper horizons of the earth's crust and the newly part of the substances in the cycle (Fig. 32).

Fig. 32. Geological (large) cycle of substances

Luggage substances are the most intense and rapid cycle - gases and natural waters, which are atmosphere and the planet hydrochet. Significantly slower performs a circulation of a lithosphere material. In general, each cycle of any chemical element is part of the total large cycle of substances on Earth, and they are all closely related to each other. The living substance of the biosphere in this cycle performs a huge work on the redistribution of chemical elements that are constantly circulating in the biosphere, moving from the external environment to organisms and again into the external environment.

Small, or biological, cycle of substances- this is

circulation of substances between plants, animals, mushrooms, microorganisms and soil. The essence of the biological circulation is the flow of two opposite, but interrelated processes - the creation of organic substances and their destruction. The initial stage of the occurrence of organic substances is due to the photosynthesis of green plants, i.e., the formation of a living agent of carbon dioxide, water and simple mineral compounds using the energy of the Sun. Plants (producers) are removed from the soil in the solution of sulfur molecule, phosphorus, calcium, potassium, magnesium, manganese, silicon, aluminum, zinc, copper and other elements. Purbitating animals (consversions of the order) absorb the compounds of these elements are already in the form of food of plant origin. Predators (consutions II of the order) are powered by vegetative animals, consuming food more complicated composition, including proteins, fats, amino acids and other substances. In the process of destruction by microorganisms (Rinduzers) of organic substances of dead plants and remains of animals, alone mineral compounds are added to the soil and aqueous medium, and the following round of biological circulation begins. (Fig. 33).

All substances on the planet are in the process of a circulation. Solar energy causes two cycle of substances on Earth: big (geological, biosphere)and small (biological).

Main chemical elementslithospheres: oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, magnesium, sodium, potassium and others - participate in a large cycle, passing from the deep parts of the upper mantle to the surface of the lithosphere. The magmatic breed, which arose in the crystallization of the magma, enjoying on the surface of the lithosphere from the depths of the Earth, is exposed to decomposition, weathelation in the field of the biosphere. Weathered products are moving into a rolling state are demolished by water, the wind into low relief places fall into the rivers, the ocean and form powerful strata of sedimentary rocks, which over time, immersing depth in areas with elevated temperature and pressure, are subjected to metamorphosis, i.e. "Complete". With this melt, a new metamorphic breed occurs in the upper horizons of the earth's crust and the newly part of the substances in the cycle (Fig.).

Small, or biological, cycle of substances- this is

The emergence and development of the noosphere

The evolution of the organic world on Earth has passed several stages. The first is knitted with the occurrence of the biological cycle of substances in the biosphere. The second is accompanied by the formation of multicellular organisms. These two stages are called biogenesis. The stage of the stage is associated with the advent of human society, under the influence of which in modern conditions there is the evolution of the biosphere and turning it into the scope of the Nonosphere's mind (from G.-Mind, -Shar). The noosphere is the new state of the biosphere, when the reasonable activity of a person becomes the main factor that determines its development. The term "" noosphere was introduced by E. Lerua. V. I. Vernadsky deepened and developed the doctrine of the noosphere. He wrote: "Noosphere has a new geological phenomenon on our planet. In her, the person becomes a large geological force." V. I. Vernadsky highlighted the necessary prerequisites for the creation of a nosphere: 1. The humanity was one of the whole. 2. The possibility of instant exchange of information.3.The people 'equality. 6.Intensive wars from society. The creation of these prerequisites becomes possible as a result of the explosion of scientific thought in the twentieth century.

Theme - 6. Nature is a person: a systematic approach.The purpose of the lecture: to form a holistic idea of \u200b\u200bthe system postulates of ecology.

Main Questions: 1. The system of the system and about complex biosystems.2. The possibility of biological systems. 3.System postulates: the law of general communication, the environmental laws B. Commemor, the law of large numbers, the principle of Le Chatella, the law of feedback in nature and the constancy law The number of living agents.4. Models of interactions in the systems "Nature-Man" and "Man-Economy-Biot-Wednesday".

The environmental system is the main object of ecology. The ecology is in its essence of the system and in theoretical appearance is close to the general theory of systems. According to the general theory of systems, the system is a real or thought of the combination of parts whose integral properties are determined by the interaction between parts (elements) of the system. In real life, the system is defined as the co-compound of objects combined by some form of regular interactions or interdependence to perform a given function. In material, there are certain hierarchies-ordered sequences of space-time coented and complication of systems. All the varieties of our world present in the form of three consistently emerged hierarchies. This is the main, natural, physicochemical - biological (F, X, B) hierarchy and adverse two, which have arisen on its basis, social (c) and technical (T) hierarchy. The existence of the latter in the aggregate of inverse relations in a certain way affects the main hierarchy. Combining systems from different hierarchies leads to "mixed" system classes. So, the combination of systems from the physicochemical part of the hierarchy (F, X - "Wednesday") with living systems of the biological part of the hierarchy (B - "Biota") leads to a mixed class of systems, called environmental.And the combination of systems from the hierarchy with

("Man") and T ("technique") leads to the class of economic, or technical and economic,systems.

Fig. . Hierarchy of material systems:

F, X - physico-chemical, b - biological, C - social, T - technical

It should be understood that the impact of human society on nature, mediated by equipment and technologies (technogenesis), refers to the entire hierarchy of natural systems: the lower branch - to the abiotic medium, the top to the biosphere. Below will be addressed by the conjugacy of the environmental and economic and economic parties of this interaction.

All systems are inherent in some common properties:

1. Each system has a certain structurethe defined form of space-time links or interaction between the elements of the system. Structural ordering itself does not determine the organization of the system. The system can be called organizedif its existence is either necessary to maintain some functional (performing a certain work) of the structure, or, on the contrary, depends on the activities of such a structure.

2. According to the principle of the required diversitythe system cannot consist of identical elements devoid of individuality. The lower limit of diversity is at least two elements (proton and electron, protein and nucleic acid, "he" and "it"), the upper - infinity. Variety is the most important information characteristics of the system. It differs from the number of varieties of elements and can be measured.3. The system is not possible to comprehend only on the basis of the properties of its parts. The interaction between the elements is crucial. On separate parts of the machine before assembly, it is impossible to judge its action. Studying separately some forms of mushrooms and algae, you can not predict the existence of their symbiosis in the form of a lichen. The joint action of two or more different factors on the body almost always differs from the amount of their separate effects. The degree of incorposability of the properties of the system to the sum of the properties of individual elements, of which it consists, determines emergenismsystems.

4. The system of the system divides its world into two parts - the system itself and its environment. Depending on the presence (lack) of metabolism, energy and information with the medium, it is fundamentally possible: isolatedsystems (no exchange is impossible); closedsystems (impossible metabolism); opensystems (metabolism and energy possible). Energy exchange determines the exchange of information. In the wildliness there are only open dynamicsystems, between the internal elements of which and the elements of the medium are carried out transfers of substances, energy and information. Any live system - from the virus to the biosphere - is an open dynamic system.

5. The predominance of internal interactions in the system over the external and lability of the system with respect to the external
Actions are determined by it ability to self-savedue to the qualities of organized, endurance and stability. External impact on the system, superior strength and flexibility of the external interactions, leads to irreversible changes
And the death of the system. The stability of the dynamic system is maintained by continuously performed by outer cyclic operation. For this, the stream and energy conversion in this is necessary. Topic. The probability of achieving the main objective of the system - self-preservation (including by self-reproduction) is determined by its potential efficiency.

6. The action of the system in time is called it behavior.Caused by an external factor change behavior referred to as reactionsystems, and a change in the reaction of the system associated with the change in structure and aimed at stabilization of behavior ,.. fixtureor adaptation.Consolidating adaptive changes in the structure and bonds of the system in time, in which its potential efficiency increases, is considered to be development,or evolution,systems. The emergence and existence of all material systems in nature is due to evolution. Dynamic systems are evolved in the direction from more likely to a less likely organization, i.e. Development goes on the path of complication of the organization and education subsystems in the system structure. In nature, all forms of behavior of systems - from an elementary reaction to global evolution - essentially nonlinear.An important feature of the evolution of complex systems is
unevenness, lack of monotony.Periods of gradual accumulation of minor changes are sometimes interrupted by sharp high-quality jumps that significantly change the properties of the system. Usually they are associated with the so-called points of bifurcation- Split, splitting the former path of evolution. 0t selection of this or that continuation of the path at the point of bifurcation a lot depends, up to the appearance and prosperity of the new world of particles, substances, organisms, societies, or, on the contrary, the death of the system. Even for decisive systems, the result of the choice is often unpredictable, and the selection itself at the point of bifurcation can be due to a random pulse. Any real system can be represented as some material similarity or a sign image, i.e. respectively analog or sign model system.Modeling is inevitably accompanied by some simplification and formalization of interconnections in the system. This formalization may be
It was carried out in the form of logical (causal) and / or mathematical (functional) relations. As the increase in the complexity of systems, they have new emergenous qualities. At the same time, the qualities of simpler systems are preserved. Therefore, the overall diversity of the quality of the system increases as its complications (Fig. 2.2).

Fig. 2.2. The patterns of changes in the properties of hierarchies of systems with an increase in their level (on Flashman, 1982):

1 - diversity, 2 - stability, 3 - Emergenity, 4 - complexity, 5 - non-idetent, 6 - prevalence

In ascending order of activity in relation to external influences of the quality of the system can be ordered in the following sequence: 1 - stability, 2 - reliability due to awareness of the environment (noise immunity), 3 - controllability, 4 - self-organization. In this row, each subsequent quality makes sense with the presence of the previous one.

Couple complexity system structures is determined by the number pher elements and numbers t.

connections between them. If the number of private discrete states is investigated in any system, then the complexity of the system FROMdetermined by the logarithm number of links:

C \u003d LGM.(2.1)

Systems are conditionally classified by complexity as follows: 1) systems having up to a thousand states (about <С < 3), относятся к simple;2) systems having up to a million states (3< С < 6), являют собой complex systems;3) systems with the number of states above a million (C\u003e 6) are identified as very complicated.

All real natural biosystems are very complex. Even in the structure of a single virus, the number of biologically significant molecular states exceeds the latter value.

Biological and geological cyphans of substances. Great Oil and Gas Encyclopedia

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Geological circulation.