Foreign literature of the 17th century. Characteristics of foreign literature of the 17th century
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FOREIGN LITERATURE 17-18 centuries 2 COURSE, OZO
Credit requirements.
Boileau. Poetic art.
P. Cornel. Sid.
J. Racine. Phaedra.
D. Milton. Lost heaven.
D. Donne. Lyrics.
D. Defoe. Robinson Crusoe.
R. Burns. Lyrics.
Voltaire. Candide.
Schiller. The robbers.
Goethe. Faust.
1. Artamonov, S. D. History of foreign literature of the XVII-XVIII centuries: textbook / S. D. Artamonov. - M.: Education, 1978 / (reprinted 2005)
2. Zhirmunskaya N. A. History of foreign literature of the XVII century: textbook / N. A. Zhirmunskaya. - M.: Higher. shk., 2007.
3. Erofeeva N. E. Foreign literature. 17th century - M., 2005.
4. Erofeeva N.E. Foreign literature. 18 century. Textbook. - M., 2005
5. History of foreign literature: textbook. - M.: Moscow State University, 2008
6. History of foreign literature of the 17th century / Ed. M.V. Razumovskaya. - M., 2009.
7. History of foreign literature of the 18th century / Ed. L.V. Sidorchenko. - M., 2009.
8. History of foreign literature of the 17-18 centuries: textbooks for students of pedagogical institutes. Moscow: Education, 1988.
9.Pakhsaryan N.T. History of foreign literature of the 17-18 centuries. Study guide. - M .: 19969.
10. Samarin RM Foreign literature. - M., 1987.
11. Solovyova N. A. History of foreign literature: Pre-romanticism. - M., 2005.
additional literature
1.Atarova, K.N. Lawrence Stern and his "Sentimental journey through
France and Italy "/ K. N. Atarova. - M., 1988.
2. Balashov, NI Pierre Cornel / NI Balashov. - M., 1956.
3. Bart, R. Racinovsky man / R. Bart // Bart R. Selected works
Semiotics. Poetics. - M., 1989.
4. Bordonov, J. Moliere / J. Bordonov. - M., 1983.
5. Vertzman, I.E. Jean-Jacques Rousseau / I.E. - M., 1958.
6. Vipper, Yu.B. Creative destinies and history (About Western European
Literatures of the 16th - first half of the 19th century) / Yu. B. Vipper. - M., 1990.
7. Volkov, IF "Faust" by Goethe and the problem of the artistic method / IF Volkov. - M., 1970.
8. XVII century in the world literary development / Ed. Yu. B. Vipper.
9. Ganin, V. N. Poetics of the Pastoral: The Evolution of the English Pastoral
poetry of the XVI-XVIII centuries / V. N. Ganin. - Oxford, 1998.
10. Grandel, F. Beaumarchais / F. Grandel. - M., 1979.
11. De Sanctis, F. History of Italian Literature. In 2 volumes / Ed.
D. E. Mikhalchi. - M., 1963-1964.
12. Dlugach, T. B. Denis Diderot / T. B. Dlugach. - M., 1975.
13. Dubashinsky, I. A. Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift / I. A. Dubashinsky. - M., 1969.
14. Elistratova, A. A. English novel of the Age of Enlightenment / A. A. Elistratova. - M., 1966.
15. Ermolenko, G. N. French comic poem of the 17th-18th centuries. / G.N.
Ermolenko. - Smolensk, 1998.
16. Zhirmunsky, V. M. Essays on the history of classical German literature / V. M. Zhirmunsky. - L., 1972.
Foreign literature: Renaissance. Baroque. Classicism. - M, 1998
17. History of English literature. In 3 volumes - M., 1943 - 1945 .-- Vol. 1
18. History of Western European theater. In 8 volumes. T. 1. / Under total. ed. S. S.
Mokulsky. - M., 1956.
19. History of Foreign Literature of the 18th Century / Ed. A. P.
Neustroeva, P. M. Samarina. - M., 1974.
20. History of foreign literature of the XVII century / Ed. Z.I. Plavskina. - M., 1987.
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13
1. History of Foreign Literature of the 18th Century / Ed. Z.I. Plavskina.
22. The history of German literature. In 5 volumes.Vol. 1 - M., 1962.
23. History of French literature. In 4 volumes.Vol. 1. - M., 1946.
24. History of aesthetics: Monuments of aesthetic thought: In 5 volumes. T. 2. - M., 1964.
25. Kadyshev, B.C. Racine / V.S.Kadyshev. - M., 1990.
26. Kettle, A. Introduction to the history of the English novel / A. Kettle. - M., 1966.
27. Kirnoze, ZI Workshop on the history of French literature / ZI Kirnoze, VN Pronin. - M., 1991.
28. Konradi, K.O. Goethe: Life and Works. In 2 volumes / K.O. Konradi. - M., 1987.
29. Lukov, V. A. History of foreign literature: XVII-XVIII centuries. At 2 o'clock / V.A.Lukov. - M., 2000.
30. Lukov, V. A. French drama (pre-romanticism, romantic movement) / V. A. Lukov. - M., 1984.
31. Morua, A. From Montaigne to Aragon / A. Morua. - M., 1983.
32. Multatuli, V. M. Moliere / V. M. Multatuli. 2nd ed. - M., 1988.
33. Muravyov, B.C. Traveling with Gulliver / V. S. Muravyov. - M., 1972. 34. Oblomievsky, D. D. French classicism / D. D. Oblomievsky. - M., 1968.
35. Plavskin, Z. I. Spanish literature of the XVII-XIX centuries / Z. I. Plavskin. - M., 1978.
36. Practical classes in foreign literature / Ed. N.P. Mikhalskaya, B.I. Purisheva. - M., 1981.
37. Problems of Enlightenment in world literature / Otv. ed. S. V. Turaev. - M., 1970.
38. Purishev, B. I. Essays on German literature of the XV-XVII centuries. / B. I. Purishev. - M., 1955.
39. Razumovskaya, M. V. Formation of a new novel in France and the ban on the novel of the 1730s / M. V. Razumovskaya. - L., 1981.
40. Sidorchenko, L. V. Alexander Pope and artistic quest in English literature of the first quarter of the 18th century / L. V. Sidorchenko. - SPb., 1992.
41. Svasian, K. A. Johann Wolfgang Goethe / K. A. Svasyan. - M., 1989.
42. Chameev, A. A. John Milton and his poem "Paradise Lost" / A. A. M. A. M. A. Chameev. - L., 1986.
43. Chernozemova, E. N. History of English Literature: Plans. Development. Materials. Tasks / E. N. Chernozemova. - M., 1998.
44. Shaitanov, I. O. The Thinking Muse: "Discovery of Nature" in the poetry of the 18th century / I. O. Shaitanov. - M., 1989.
45. Schiller, F. P. History of Western European Literature of the New Time. In 3 volumes.Vol. 1. / F.P.Schiller. - M., 1935.
46. Stein, AL Literature of the Spanish Baroque / AL Stein. - M., 1983.
47. Stein, A. L. History of Spanish Literature / A. L. Stein. - M., 1994.
48. Stein, AL History of German Literature: Part 1. / AL Stein. - M., 1999
49. Stein, A. L. History of French literature / A. L. Stein, M. N. Chernevich, M. A. Yakhontova. - M., 1988.
Readers
1. Artamonov, S. D. Foreign literature of the 17th-18th centuries: anthology; study guide / S. D. Artamonov. - M.: Education, 1982.
2. Purishev, BI Reader on foreign literature of the 18th century: textbook / BI Purishev. - M.: Higher. shk., 1973 / (reprinted 1998)
3. Foreign literature of the 18th century: a reader: textbook for universities in 2 volumes / Ed. B.I. Purisheva - M.: Higher School, 1988. PLANS AND CONTENT PRACTICAL EXERCISES
Topic number 1.Theater of French Classicism. Corneille. Racine. Moliere.
The aesthetic principles of 17th century classicism. "Eternal images" and "eternal plots."
Aristotle's development of the aesthetic principles of classicism in Poetics.
Philosophy of rationalism and classicism of the 17th century Descartes, Bacon.
"Poetic Art" N. Boileau and the aesthetics of classicism of the 17th century.
The high tragedy of the theater of French classicism.
Reflection of the dramatic principles of P. Corneille in the tragedy "Sid". Images of the tragedy.
Aesthetic views of J. Racine. Ancient Greek myths in the tragedies of Racine (Andromache, Phaedra).
A high comedy of classicism.
Moliere's aesthetic views. “Eternal plots in Moliere's comedies.
Problems of Moliere's comedy "Bourgeois in the Nobility". Comedy images.
Problems of studying Moliere's creativity at school.
The problem of studying classicism at school. Russian criticism and Russian writers about classicism, classics and classicists (Pushkin et al.)
Forms and methods of conducting classes, types of educational activities of students:
- an interview on the topic of the lesson;
- answers on questions;
Hearing messages on the topics "Russian literature about French classicism", "Problems of studying Moliere's work at school" and their discussion.
1. Carefully read the material of the lecture, textbooks on a given topic.2. Answer the plan questions.
3. Make presentations.
Literature
Boileau N. Poetic Art. - M., 2005.
History of foreign literature of the 17th century. / ed. M.V. Razumovskaya. - M .: Higher school, 2001.
Lukov V.A. Literary history. Foreign literature from the beginnings to the present day. - M .: Academia, 2009.
Mikhailov A.V., Shestopalov D.P. Tragedy // Brief literary encyclopedia. - M., 1972. - T. 7. - S. 588-593.
Nikolyukin A.N. Literary encyclopedia of terms and concepts. - M .: NPK Intelvak, 2001.
Subject of reports, abstracts.
1. Bourgeois revolution and literature.
2. The influence of the ideas of Puritanism on the literature of the 17-18 centuries.
3. Philosophy of the 17-18th centuries and literature.
4. Russian writers about Western European literature of the 17th century.
5. Western European Education and Russian literature.
6. Western European poetry of the 17th century. in the context of Christian thought.
7. Creativity of writers (poets) 17-18 centuries. in the context of Christian thought.
8. Western European lyrics 17-18 centuries. in the context of Christian thought
Intermediate certification by discipline - offset .
Credit requirements. Availability of abstracts, quality of homework, knowledge literary texts, performance of test and control works, possession of skills reasoned speech and work with primary sources, Internet resources.
Literary texts for mandatory use(2 course OZO, 4 semes. 3 course ZSVL, 5 semes.).
Lyrics of the Baroque. Marino. Gongora.
Lope de Vega. Sheep source.
P. Calderon. Cross worship. Life is a dream.
Boileau. Poetic art.
P. Cornel. Sid.
J. Racine. Phaedra.
J. B. Moliere. Tartuffe. Bourgeois in the nobility.
D. Milton. Lost heaven.
D. Donne. Lyrics.
D. Defoe. Robinson Crusoe.
D. Swift. Gulliver's travels.
G. Fielding. The Story of Tom Jones, the Foundling ”(excerpts).
R. Burns. Lyrics.
D. Diderot. The paradox about the actor. Rameau's nephew.
Voltaire. Candide.
Russo. New Eloise. Confession.
Schiller. The robbers.
Goethe. Faust.
General characteristics of foreign literature of the 17th century.
Puritanism and its influence on literature.
English bourgeois revolution and the world literary process.
General characteristics of the literary trends of the 17th century.
General characteristics of the literature of the 18th century. The concept of Enlightenment.
Aesthetic program of the Enlighteners. Theories of "natural law", "natural man", "social contract".
Philosophy of the 17th century and literature. V. Kozhinov on the influence of Western European philosophy on literature. Descartes, Bacon.
Philosophy of the 18th century and literature. Hobbes, Locke, Hume.
General characteristics of baroque literature. Baroque architecture. Representatives.
General characteristics of the literature of classicism. Architecture, painting. Representatives.
The dramaturgy of Lope de Vega as a reflection of the new period in the development of theater. Problems of the drama "Sheep Source".
The cloak and sword comedy by Lope de Vega.
Baroque in the poetry of Italy and Spain. Marinism, gongorism.
Poetry of the Spanish Baroque. Luis de Gongora. Francisco de Quevedo.
Calderon's aesthetics. Turgenev on Calderon. Christian motives of the drama "Worship of the Cross".
Problems of Calderon's drama "Life is a dream". Christian-philosophical context of the drama. Images of the drama.
17th century English literature and the English bourgeois revolution. Puritanism and English Literature.
Poetry of metaphysicians. Creativity D. Donne.
Milton and the English bourgeois revolution. Milton's aesthetics in Paradise Lost.
Features of the biblical plot in Milton's poem "Paradise Lost". Images of the poem.
General characteristics of German literature of the 17th century.
Artistic features of Grimmelshausen's novel "Simplicius Simplicissimus".
Traditions of "Poetics" by Aristotle. Boileau's "Poetic Art" and the Demands of Classicism.
The development of the aesthetics of the classicist theater in the work of P. Corneille. The conflict of duty and passion in the Sid tragedy.
Racine and the Traditions of Ancient Tragedy. Euripides and Racine. Problems of Racine's tragedy "Phaedra".
Features of the "high" comedy of classicism. Moliere on the aesthetics of comedy.
Themes and problems of the comedies by Moliere "Tartuffe", "Don Juan", "The Misanthrope".
Problems of the comedy "Bourgeois in the Nobility". The specifics of the study of Moliere at school.
"Eternal plots" and "eternal images" in Moliere's comedies.
Features of the literature of the English Enlightenment and its theory of the novel. Problems of the novel "The Story of Tom Jones, Foundling".
English drama of the 18th century. Sheridan's School of Backbiting.
The work ethic of the Puritans and the problematic of Defoe's novel Robinson Crusoe. Problems of studying Defoe's creativity at school.
Swift and the English Enlightenment. Problems of the novel "Gulliver's Travel". Studying the novel at school.
English sentimentalism. Stern, Smollett, R. Burns. Problems of studying Burns' lyrics at school.
Stern's book Sentimental Journey.
Literature of the French Enlightenment. Voltaire's aesthetic views. Problems of philosophical stories.
Features of Diderot's aesthetics. Problems of the philosophical story "Rameau's Nephew".
Social, political and philosophical views of Rousseau. Artistic features of "Confession".
Rousseau and Sentimentalism. General characteristics of sentimentalism.
Problems of the novel by Russo "New Eloise".
Artistic features of the comedies "The Barber of Seville" and "The Marriage of Figaro" by Beaumarchais.
Features of the development of the German Enlightenment. Literature "Storms and Onslaught".
Weimar Classicism ": aesthetic characteristics, rethinking the heritage of antiquity.
Lessing's treatise "Laocoon" and its influence on the aesthetics of the Enlightenment.
Problems of Schiller's drama "The Robbers". Studying Schiller's creativity at school.
Goethe's philosophical views. Goethe and Russian Literature. Study of Goethe's creativity at school.
German sentimentalism. Goethe's "The Suffering of Young Werther".
The independent work of students depends on whether it is related to the problems included in the lecture course, or whether the topics are included only on the CDS. The lecture greatly facilitates the work of students and the first stage of the CDS will be the study of lecture materials and textbooks.
If lectures on the material of the IWS are not provided for by the curriculum, then the student relies on the material of textbooks, scientific and practical literature and literary texts.
Important in both cases is bibliographic work... The teacher gives the necessary sources for the lectures, or indicates in the list of scientific and practical literature available in the methodological plans for the courses. Particular attention should be paid to working with terms, in which the student should attract not only comments, but also reference literature: "Brief literary encyclopedia" , "Dictionary of Literary Terms", "Poetic Dictionary", "Philosophical Encyclopedia". Basic terms are written out and used in the analysis of works.
The bibliographic culture of the student is evidenced by the time of the appearance of the work, and the contradiction between the position of the critic and his own opinion.
A useful form is the compilation of chronological tables, for example, tables of the dates of the life and work of the writer.
Design- an important element of work on a theoretical and critical text. The abstracts are checked periodically.
The abstract should consist of a plan of the studied work and its brief annotation. The synopsis should contain several quotes, which form the main provisions of the work and their proof.
When reading fiction, notes should also be kept.
In preparation for the lesson, the student must compose response plan to the questions posed by the teacher, write down the argumentation of the answers, clarify the terminology with which he intends to operate.
The teacher must also provide students with the right to act independently. The student is obliged to independently fill the gap that is not filled with the lecture material.
The forms of CDS include drawing up a lesson plan, an optional lesson in accordance with the requirements of the school methodology. Reports, abstracts can be prepared, which can be read in practical classes, circles, scientific conferences, meetings of problem groups. Selected topics can be used in coursework and WRC. Abstracts or articles on student written work may be published. A similar scientific student work can be intermediate control and affects midterm final attestation.
Customization is an important principle of the CDS
Foreign literature of the 17th-18th centuries.
Questions for the exam
11. Creativity Corneille.
Corneille (1606-1684)
Born in Rouen, the son of an official. He graduated from the Jesuit College, received the position of a lawyer. Once, as the legend tells, one of Corneille's friends introduced him to his beloved, but she preferred Pierre to her former admirer. This story prompted Corneille to write a comedy. This is how his "Melita" (1629) appeared. Then - "Clitander", "Widow", "Gallery of the Court", "Royal Square" - are now forgotten. After the "Comic Illusion", with its incredible jumble of fantastic creatures and incidents, Cornel created "Sida" - a tragedy that opened the glorious history of the French national theater, was the national pride of the French. "Sid" brought the author the praise of the people and the irritation of Richelieu (because there are political motives - the Spanish hero). Richelieu was jealous, because he himself was a bad poet. Corneille was attacked. The Academy began to look for errors and deviations from the "rules" of classicism. The playwright was silent for a while. In 1639-1640 - the tragedies "Horace" and "Cinna", 1643 - "Polievkt". In 1652 - the tragedy "Pertarit" - a complete failure. Falls silent for seven years, then in 1659 - "Oedipus". Racine comes to replace him. Corneille doesn't want to give up. Voltaire in 1731 in the poem "The Temple of Taste" depicted Corneille throwing his last tragedies into the fire - "the cold old age of creation." In 1674, K. stopped writing, 10 years later he died.
Early creativity
The comedy Melita (Mélite, 1629) is usually considered the first play of Corneille, but in 1946 an anonymous manuscript of the pastoral play Alidor ou l'Indifférent, op. . between 1626 and 1628, published in 2001), which, perhaps, should be considered the real debut of the great playwright (according to other versions, its author is Jean Rotrou). Melita was followed by a series of comedies with which Corneille created a position for himself and won over Richelieu.
Since 1635, Cornelle writes tragedies, first imitating Seneca; among these first, rather feeble attempts, is Médée. Then, inspired by Spanish theater, he wrote L'Illusion Comique (1636), a ponderous farce with a Spanish matamor at its center.
"Sid"
At the end of 1636 another tragedy of Corneille appeared, constituting an era in the history of French theater: it was "Cid", immediately recognized as a masterpiece; even a proverb was created: “as beautiful as Sid” (beau comme le Cid). ”Paris, and behind it all of France, continued to“ look at Sid through the eyes of Jimena ”even after the Paris academy condemned this tragedy, in“ Sentiments de l'Académie sur le Cid ": the author of this criticism, Chaplein found the choice of the plot of the tragedy unsuccessful, the denouement unsatisfactory, the style devoid of dignity.
The tragedy Horace, written in Rouen, was staged in Paris in early 1640, apparently on the stage of the Burgundy Hotel. The premiere of the tragedy did not become a triumph for the playwright, but the success of the play grew from performance to performance. Included in the repertoire of the Comédie Française theater, the tragedy withstood the number of performances on this stage, second only to Sid. The main roles of the play were brilliantly performed by such famous actors as Mademoiselle Clairon, Rachelle, Mounet-Sully and others.
Horace was first published in January 1641 by Augustin Courbet.
At the same time, Corneille's marriage to Marie de Lamprière, the height of his social life, constant relations with the Rambouillet hotel. One after another appeared his wonderful comedy "Le Menteur" and much weaker tragedies:
Religious poetry
Beginning in 1651, Corneille succumbed to the influence of his Jesuit friends, who tried to distract his former pupil from the theater. Corneille took up religious poetry, as if in redemption for his secular creativity of previous years, and soon published a poetic translation of Imitation de Jésus Christ. This translation was a huge success and went through 130 editions in 20 years. It was followed by several other translations, also influenced by the Jesuits: eulogies to the Virgin Mary, psalms, etc.
13. Creativity of Racine.
The beginning of the creative path
In 1658 Racine began to study law in Paris and made his first connections in the literary environment. In 1660 he wrote the poem "The Nymph of the Seine", for which he received a pension from the king, and also created two plays that have never been staged on stage and have not survived to this day. His mother's family decided to prepare him for the religious career, and in 1661 he went to his uncle, a priest in Languedoc, where he spent two years in the hope of receiving money from the church, which would allow him to devote himself entirely to literary work. This venture ended in failure, and about 1663 Racine returned to Paris. The circle of his literary acquaintances expanded, the doors of the court salons opened in front of him. The first of his surviving plays, Thebaida (1664) and Alexander the Great (1665), were staged by Moliere. The stage success prompted Racine to enter into polemics with his former teacher, the Jansenist Pierre Nicholas, who proclaimed that any writer and playwright is a public poisoner of souls.
Triumphant decade
In 1665, Racine broke off relations with the Moliere Theater and moved to the Burgundy Hotel Theater together with his mistress, the famous actress Theresa Du Parc, who played the title role in Andromache in 1667. It was Racine's first masterpiece to be a huge success with the public. The well-known mythological plot was already developed by Euripides, but the French playwright changed the essence of the tragic conflict so that "the image of Andromache would correspond to the idea of her that was established in our country." Achilles 'son Pyrrhus is engaged to Menelaus' daughter Hermione, but is passionately in love with Hector's widow Andromache. Seeking her consent to the marriage, he threatens in case of refusal to hand over to the Greeks the son of Hector Astianax. The Greek embassy is headed by Orestes, who is in love with Hermione. In "Andromache" there is no conflict between duty and feeling: the relationship of mutual dependence creates an insoluble dilemma and leads to inevitable disaster - when Andromache agrees to marry Pyrrhus, Hermione orders Orestes to kill her fiancé, after which she curses the killer and commits suicide. In this tragedy, passions tearing apart a person's soul are shown, which make a "reasonable" decision impossible.
The most fruitful period in Racine's work began with the production of Andromache: after his only comedy, Sutiagi (1668), the tragedies Britannicus (1669), Berenice (1670), Bayazet (1672), Mithridates appeared. (1673), Iphigenia (1674). The playwright was on the crest of fame and success: in 1672 he was elected to the French Academy, and the king who favored him granted him the title of nobility. The turning point of this extremely successful career was the production of Phaedra (1677). Racine's enemies did their best to fail the play: the insignificant playwright Pradon used the same plot in his tragedy, which was staged simultaneously with Phaedra, and the greatest tragedy of the French theater (which the playwright himself considered his best play) failed at the first performance. The unlawful love of the wife of the Athenian king Theseus for her stepson Hippolytus at one time attracted the attention of Euripides, for whom the main character was a pure youth, severely punished by the goddess Aphrodite. Racine put Phaedra at the center of his tragedy, showing the painful struggle of a woman with a sinful passion that burns her. There are at least two interpretations of this conflict - "pagan" and "Christian". On the one hand, Racine shows a world inhabited by monsters (one of them destroys Hippolytus) and ruled by evil gods. At the same time, here you can find the existence of the "hidden God" of the Jansenists: he does not give people any "signs", but only in him can one find salvation. It is no coincidence that the play was enthusiastically received by the teacher of Racine, Antoine Arnault, who owns the famous definition: "Phaedra is a Christian woman, to whom grace did not descend." The heroine of the tragedy finds "salvation", dooming herself to death and saving the honor of Hippolytus in the eyes of her father. In this play, Racine managed to fuse together the concept of pagan rock with the Calvinist idea of predestination.
Leaving the theater
The intrigue around "Phaedra" caused a stormy controversy, in which Racine did not take part. Abruptly leaving the stage, he married a devout, but quite ordinary girl who bore him seven children, and took the position of royal historiographer, along with his friend Boileau. His only plays during this period were Esther (1689) and Athalia (1690), written for a girls' school in Saint-Cyr at the request of their patroness, the Marquise de Maintenon, the morganatic wife of Louis XIV.
Racine's work represents the highest stage of French classicism: in his tragedies, the harmonious severity of construction and clarity of thought are combined with a deep penetration into the recesses of the human soul.
15. Creativity Moliere.
Moliere comes from a wealthy, educated family. When Moliere was 15 years old. His father insisted that he go to Sarbona. Moliere graduated from the Faculty of Journalism successfully, but when he was 19, a very sharp turn took place in his life, he "fell ill" with the theater. A theater from the provinces toured in Paris. Moliere left home for 10 years and stayed in the province. The performances were given either in the barn, or in the knights' hall, or elsewhere. Moliere returned to Paris at the age of 30. Gradually, Moliere began to write plays, comedies, he himself played as a comedic actor.
One of the earliest comedies was "funny mincers" - comedy lessons, characters for the first years of Moliere's stay in Paris (a lesson for wives and a lesson for husbands), the comedy "Georges Danden" was written in the same vein. Its hero, a rich farmer, a relatively young and ambitious man, decided to marry a noblewoman at any cost. And he is making his dream come true. An impoverished noblewoman marries a wealthy Georges. On getting married, she accepts to settle scores with Georges Danden - he is an ignoramus for her, an ignoramus: she reprimands her displeasure to her husband and believes that lovers should have compensation for the sacrifices. She instructs her husband's horns whenever possible. The image of the main character is drawn in a special way. This is a person prone to self-reflection: he first of all blames himself. This makes him both vulnerable, unhappy and raises the reader's attitude towards the hero. "You wanted it yourself, Georges Danden."
A special place in Moliere's work is occupied by "Amphitrion". Husband of Alcmene (mother of Hercules). Nobody encroaches on her honor and beauty, she was a faithful wife. Zeus falls in love with Alcmene and decided that she should belong to him. Zeus took the form of Amphitryon. The comedy "Amphitryon" was a work of both gallant and ambiguous: in it, in the image of resourceful Zeus, Louis 14 was depicted. The king was flattered by this work, and this comedy went on. In the first years of his stay in Paris, Moliere and his theater enjoyed the king's sympathy, the king attended performances, and was especially fond of comedy-ballet.
For example, "The Imaginary Sick" - the main character is a person who has only one ailment - an incredible suspiciousness. He dies all day without harm to his health. Realizes that this is a pretense, only a servant. She guesses how an imaginary patient can be cured at once: he must be ordained an oriental doctor. At the end of the comedy, a whole group of doctors enters the patient's room; they are armed with professional weapons - tweezers. All this guard dances and sings, initiating the patient into the ta-to-shi clan, i.e. into an enlightened doctor. In the macaroni language - fr. + Lat. These dances were comedy ballets. The century of Louis 14 was a century of ballets, quite peculiar. In these ballets, the king, queen, princes, ambassadors dance. The courtiers contemplated.
The king's favor was so great that he was twice the godfather of Moliere's children, singling out sumina, but the Moliere children did not survive.
In the 70s. royal awe came to an end, this is associated with the comedy "Tartuffe". When the first version came out, an immediate ban followed. The comedy was seen as a satire on the authority of the church. The second option also failed, followed by a ban. And in order to ensure the economic stability of the troupe, he writes the comedy Don Juan in 40 days, then creates the third version of Tartuffe.
Moliere died practically on stage: acting as the protagonist of "The Imaginary Sick" and finished the performance, the pains were genuine, and after that the curtain was closed and he was transferred to his house.
They could not find a single priest for Moliere to confess, but when the priest came, Moliere had already died. Based on this, the church refused to bury him in the cemetery, he was buried in the cemetery, but not on the sacred ground.
17. Creativity of Lope de Vega.
One of the brightest representatives of the Renaissance realism of the 17th century was Lope Felix de Vega Carpio (1562-1635) - the great Spanish playwright, poet, the pinnacle of the golden age of Spanish literature.
Lope de Vega was born into the family of a gold embroiderer. Studied at the University of Alcala. From the age of five he wrote poetry. At 22, he was a successful playwright. His life was filled with passion and dramatic events.
On December 29, 1587, during the performance, Lope de Vega was arrested and sent to prison. The reason for the arrest was the insulting satirical poetry addressed to his former lover Elena Osorio and her family, whose head X. Velazquez was the director of Lope's first plays. By a court decision, the young man was expelled from Madrid and Castile for many years. Leaving the capital, he kidnapped dona Isavel de Urbina and married her against the will of his father. At the wedding, the groom was represented by a relative, since Lope faced the death penalty for appearing in Madrid in violation of the sentence.
On May 29, 1588, Lope de Vega volunteered for the ship San Juan and set out on the Invincible Armada's campaign. After many adventures, the loss of his brother Lope returned to Spain, settled in Valencia and published the poem "The Beauty of Angelica" (1602).
After the death of his first wife in 1593, Lope married the daughter of the butcher Juana de Guardo. During these years, he devoted himself to a passionate passion for the actress Michaela de Lujan, praised by him in the image of Camilla Lucinda. For many years, the poet travels after his beloved and lives where she plays.
Since 1605, Lope has served as secretary to the Duke de Sess, writes a lot for the theater. In 1610, after the court's verdict was canceled, he finally moved to Madrid.
In 1609, thanks to the participation of the Duke de Sessa, Lope de Vega received the title that protects him from church attacks - “close to the Inquisition,” that is, beyond suspicion. In 1614, after the death of his son and the death of his second wife, Lope was ordained a priest, but did not betray his secular principles of life. Church dignity did not prevent him from experiencing once again an all-consuming feeling for Martha de Nevarez. Lope did not give up his love even after Marta went blind and lost her mind.
In 1625 the Council of Castile forbids the printing of Lope de Vega's plays. Misfortunes follow the poet in his personal life.
Marta de Nevares dies in 1632. In 1634, a son dies, one of the daughters, Marcela, goes to a monastery, the other daughter, Antonia-Clara, is kidnapped by a dissolute nobleman. Misfortune made Lope completely lonely, but did not break his spirit and did not kill his interest in life. Shortly before his death, he completed the poem "The Golden Age" (1635), in which he expressed his dream, continuing to assert the Renaissance ideal.
Lope's work is based on the ideas of Renaissance humanism and the traditions of patriarchal Spain. His legacy is great. It includes various genre forms: poems, dramas, comedies, sonnets, eclogs, parodies, prose novels. Lope de Vega owns over 1,500 works. According to the names, 726 dramas and 47 autos have come down to us, 470 texts of plays have been preserved. The writer actively developed folk motives and themes along with the literary traditions of the Renaissance.
Lope's poems showed his poetic skill, patriotic spirit, desire to declare himself in the world of literature. He created about twenty poems on various subjects, including antique ones. Competing with Ariosto, he developed an episode from his poem - the love story of Angelica and Medoro - in the poem "The Beauty of Angelica"; arguing with Torquatto Tasso, he wrote “Jerusalem Conquered” (published 1609), praising the exploits of the Spaniards in the struggle for the liberation of the Holy Sepulcher.
Gradually, patriotic sentiments give way to irony. In the poem "War of the Cats" (1634), the poet, on the one hand, describing the March adventures of cats and their war for a beautiful cat, laughs at modern customs, on the other hand, he denies artificial norms, methods of classical poems created according to book samples.
In 1609, at the request of the Madrid Literary Academy, Lope wrote the treatise "The New Art of Compose of Comedy in Our Time." By this time he was already the author of brilliant comedies - "Dance Teacher" (1594), "Toledo Night" (1605), "Dog in the Manger" (c. 1604) and others. In a poetic, half-joking treatise, Lope outlined important aesthetic principles and his views on drama, directed, on the one hand, against classicism, on the other, against the baroque.
19. Creativity of Calderon.
The dramaturgy of Calderon is the Baroque completion of the theatrical model created in the late 16th - early 17th centuries by Lope de Vega. According to the list of works compiled by the author himself shortly before his death, Calderon penned about 120 comedies and dramas, 80 autos sacramentales, 20 interludes and a considerable number of other works, including poems and poems. Although Calderon is less prolific than his predecessor, he perfects Lope de Vega's dramatic "formula", purging it of lyrical and little-functional elements and transforming the piece into a lush baroque performance. For him, unlike Lope de Vega, special attention is paid to the scenographic and musical side of the performance.
There are many classifications of Calderon's plays. Most often, researchers distinguish the following groups:
Dramas of honor. These works are dominated by the traditional Spanish Baroque issues: love, religion and honor. The conflict is associated either with a deviation from these principles, or with the tragic need to comply with them, even at the cost of human life. Although the action often takes place in the past of Spain, the setting and perspective are close to modern Calderón. Examples: "Mayor of Salamea", "Doctor of his honor", "Painter of his dishonor".
Philosophical dramas. Plays of this type touch upon fundamental questions of being, first of all - human fate, free will, the causes of human suffering. The action takes place most often in "exotic" countries for Spain (for example, Ireland, Poland, Muscovy); the historical and local flavor is emphatically conditional and is intended to accentuate their timeless problems. Examples: "Life is a dream", "The Magic Magician", "St. Patrick's Purgatory".
Comedy of intrigue. The most "traditional" group of Calderon's plays includes comedies, built according to the canons of the Lope de Vega theater, with an intricate and captivating love affair. Women are most often the initiators and the most active participants in the intrigue. The so-called “calderon move” is inherent in comedies - objects that accidentally fell into the hands of the heroes, letters that came by mistake, secret passages and hidden doors. Examples: "The Invisible Lady", "In a still whirlpool ...", "In secret out loud."
Regardless of the genre, the style of Calderon is characterized by increased metaphor, vividly figurative poetic language, logically built dialogues and monologues, where the character of the heroes is revealed. Calderon's works are rich in reminiscences from ancient mythology and literature, Holy Scripture, and other writers of the golden age (for example, hints of the characters and situations of Don Quixote are in the texts of The Ladies of the Ghost and the Mayor of Salamea). The characters of his plays simultaneously possess one dominant feature (Cyprian ("The Magic Magician") - the thirst for knowledge, Sekhismundo ("Life is a dream") - the inability to distinguish between good and evil, Pedro Crespo ("Salamean Mayor") - the desire for justice) and complex internal device.
The last significant playwright of the golden age, Calderon, after a period of oblivion in the 18th century, was rediscovered in Germany. Goethe staged his plays at the Weimar Theater; the influence of the "Magic Magician" on the concept of "Faust" is noticeable. Thanks to the works of the Schlegel brothers, who were especially attracted by the philosophical and religious component of his works ("Calderon is a Catholic Shakespeare"), the Spanish playwright gained wide popularity and firmly took his place as a classic of European literature. Calderon's influence on German-language literature in the 20th century was reflected in the work of Hugo von Hoffmannsthal.
20. The main motives of Burns' lyrics.
After the unification of Scotland and England, educated Scots tried to speak English. Burns came to Scottish literature when two traditions fought in it: imitation of English models and the desire to preserve national characteristics, the vernacular language. At first, Robert Burns tried to write his "serious" poems in English and only in songs and comic messages to friends allows himself to speak Scottish. But reading Ferguson, he saw that he wrote sonorous, light and melodious verses in the "Scottish dialect", wrote simply, understandably and at the same time gracefully, with a cheerful invention. All poems, all songs and letters of Burns speak of love as the highest happiness available to mortals. In gentle lyrical lines, in the bitter complaints of an abandoned girl, in indignant rebukes to virtuous hypocrites and unrestrainedly frank free songs, the mighty indomitable force of passion, the voice of blood, the immutable law of life is sung everywhere. Burns hates venal, selfish, feigned love.
Burns discovered the incomprehensible art of making poetry out of the most ordinary, everyday situations, from the most "rude." , as "base", "plebeian". Burns made his muse speak the language of peasants, artisans. With his mighty, truly folk poetry, Burns created a new readership. This largely determined the further fate of not only Scottish, but also English literature. Romantics who came to the literary arena in the mid-90s relied on the circle of readers from the lower ranks of society, which created the poetry of Burns.
The origins of Burns' poetry are folk, his lyrics are the direct development of folk song. In his poems, he reflected the life of the people, their sorrows, joys. The work of the farmer and his independent character. But for all the inextricable connection between Burns's poetry and folk songs and legends, it cannot be denied that the predecessors of the sentimentalists influenced his formation. But having reached creative maturity, Burns rejected the languid manner of writing of his predecessors and even parodied their favorite "graveyard" rhymes. In "Elegy to the Death of My Sheep, Which was Called Mailey," Burns comically laments and "sings" the virtues of the sheep in a no less touching, sublime manner than the sentimentalists did. With such parodies, Burns, as it were, explodes from within the elegy genre beloved by poets. The affirmation of the human dignity of the worker is combined in Burns with the condemnation of the lords and the bourgeois. Even in love lyrics, the poet's critical attitude towards representatives of the possessing classes is noticeable:
People are not recognized as people
The owners of the chambers.
The lot of some is hard work
The lot of others is debauchery.
In idleness
In a hangover
They spend their days.
Not to the Garden of Eden
Not to damn hell
They do not believe. ("Really, Davy, me and you ...")
But most of Burns's heroes and heroines are brave, brave. People who are faithful in love and friendship. His heroines often go "to storm their own destiny", courageously fight for happiness, with a patriarchal way of life. Girls choose their husbands according to their hearts, against the will of their harsh parents:
With such a fellow, I don't need
Afraid of the fate of change.
I will be happy and poverty
If only Tam Glen was with me ...
Mother told me angrily:
- Fear of male betrayal,
Hang up quickly refuse you
But will Tam Glen change? ("Tam Glen")
The images of the Scottish patriots - Bruce, Wallace, MacPherson, - created by
Burns laid the foundation for the emergence of a whole gallery of portraits of national leaders, people from the lower classes. Gradually, the poet came to the conviction that if the social order of the British Empire is unjust and criminal, then there is no shame in contradicting a judge or constable; on the contrary, the fellows who enter the fight against the royal law are no less worthy of glory. Than Robin Hood. So the theme of national independence merged in Burns's work with a protest against national injustice.
21. Creativity of Grimmelshausen.
The largest representative of the democratic line of the novel was Hans Jakob Christoph Grimmelshausen (c. 1622-1676). All of Grimmelshausen's works were published under various pseudonyms, usually anagrams of the writer's name. Only in the 19th century. as a result of a long search, it was possible to establish the name of the author of "Simplicissimus" and some data on his biography. Grimmelshausen was born in the imperial city of Gelnhausen in Hesse, the son of a wealthy burgher. As a teenager, he was drawn into the maelstrom of the Thirty Years War. He traveled along military roads to almost all of Germany, finding himself in one or another warring camp, was a groom, transport, musketeer, clerk. He ended the war as a secretary of the regimental chancellery, then often changed his occupation: he was either a collector of taxes and taxes, then an innkeeper, then a manager of an estate. From 1667 until the end of his life, he served as headman of the small Rhine town of Renchen, near Strasbourg, where almost all of his works were created.
During his travels, the writer has accumulated not only rich life experience, but also a solid erudition. The number of books he read, which are reflected in his novels, is great in volume and variety. In 1668, the novel "Intricate Simplicius Simplicissimus" was published, immediately followed by several of its sequels and other "Simplician" works: nest "," Simplician perpetual calendar "and others. Grimmelshausen also wrote pastoral and "historical" novels ("The Chaste Joseph", "Dietwald and Amelinde").
Grimmelshausen, like no other German writer of the 17th century, was associated with the life and fate of the German people and was the spokesman for the true popular worldview. The worldview of the writer absorbed various philosophical elements of the era, which he learned from both "bookish" scholarship and from mystical teachings that spread throughout Germany and determined the mentality of broad strata of the people.
Grimmelshausen's work is an artistic synthesis of all the previous development of German narrative prose and various foreign-language literary influences, primarily the Spanish rogue novel. Grimmelshausen's novels are a vivid example of the originality of the German Baroque.
The pinnacle of creativity Grimmelshausen is the novel "Simplicissimus".
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Foreign literature of the 17th century
Main literary directions
The 17th century was interpreted throughout almost the entire half of the 20th century as the "era of classicism". All artistic phenomena emerging from the category of classicism were considered either as artistically imperfect works (in foreign literary criticism, for the most part), or as realistic creations, the most important in the future of literary development (in Soviet literary criticism). Originating in Western science in the 30-40s of the XX century and more and more spreading, including in our country, a peculiar fashion for the baroque gave rise to the opposite phenomenon, when the 17th century turned into the “era of baroque”, and classicism began to be regarded as a kind of baroque art in France, so that recently the study of classicism requires, perhaps, more effort and scientific courage than the study of the baroque.
Special attention should be paid to the problem of "realism of the 17th century". This concept was very popular at a certain stage in the development of Russian literary criticism: despite the demand proclaimed in the mid-1950s by major, authoritative literary scholars not to use "realism" as a complementary evaluative concept, experts still saw the development of literature as a kind of "accumulation" elements of realism, willingly associated with realistic tendencies democratic literary trends, grassroots comic and satirical literature, etc. Claims that realism participates in one form or another in the literary process of the 17th century. Artistic truthfulness, authenticity and persuasiveness of images, motives, conflicts, etc. were achieved and embodied according to other aesthetic laws than it would be in realism - the phenomenon of 19th century literature.
Borocco and classicism
In modern science, it is now practically generally accepted that the main literary trends of the 17th century were baroque and classicism. Their development proceeded inconsistently and unevenly, between the poetics of these directions there were similarities and differences, mutual influence and polemics. Baroque and classicism spread to varying degrees in different regions and at different stages within that historical and literary era.
First of all, let us dwell on the key points in the study of baroque literature. It is necessary to understand the complex etymology of the term "baroque": scientists argued about it from the beginning of the 30s to the middle of the 50s of our century. It should also be remembered that the writers whom today's science relates to the Baroque direction did not know this term (as a literary one, at least) and did not call themselves baroque writers. The very word "baroque" as a term in the history of art began to be applied to a certain range of artistic phenomena of the 17th century only in the next, 18th century, and with a negative connotation. So, in the "Encyclopedia" of the French enlighteners, the word "baroque" is used with the meanings "strange, bizarre, tasteless." It is difficult to find one linguistic source of this term, for the word was used, with shades of meaning, in Italian, and in Portuguese, and in Spanish. It should be emphasized that, although the etymology does not exhaust the modern meaning of this literary concept, it allows us to catch some features of baroque poetics (whimsy, unusual, polysemy), correlates with it, proves that the birth of terminology in the history of literature, although accidental, but not entirely arbitrary, has a certain logic.
The design of the baroque as a terminological concept does not mean that there are no controversial points in its interpretation today. Often this term receives directly opposite interpretations from cultural historians. Thus, a certain number of researchers put a very broad content into the concept of "baroque", seeing in it a certain recurring stage in the development of an artistic style - the stage of its crisis, a "disease" that leads to a certain failure of taste. The famous scientist G. Wölflin, for example, contrasts the “healthy” art of the Renaissance with the “sick” baroque art. E. Ors distinguishes the so-called Hellenistic, Medieval, Romanistic Baroque, etc. In contrast to this interpretation, most scholars prefer a concrete historical understanding of the term "baroque". It is this interpretation of baroque art that is most widespread in Russian literary criticism. But even among our scholars there are differences in the analysis of the poetics of the Baroque, discussions on certain aspects of its theory.
You need to know that for a long time our interpretation of the baroque was influenced by its vulgar sociological, straightforward ideological concept. Until now, one can find in the literature statements that the art of the Baroque is the art of the Counter-Reformation, that it flourished primarily where the noble circles prevailed over the bourgeoisie, that it expresses the aesthetic aspirations of the court nobility, etc. Behind this lies the conviction that the Baroque style is “reactionary”: if the writers of this trend are appreciated for the formal sophistication of their style, they cannot forgive them for their “ideological deficiency”. This, apparently, is the meaning of the notorious definition of the baroque in the textbook by S.D. Artamonova: "Baroque is a sickly child, born of a freak of a father and a beautiful mother." Thus, for a truly deep and correct understanding of the peculiarities of Baroque literature, not outdated textbooks are especially needed, but new scientific research.
Let us try to briefly characterize the main parameters of Baroque poetics, as they emerge in these studies, before recommending the corresponding additional literature.
The importance that scientists, including domestic ones, attach at the present stage to the culture and literature of the Baroque, sometimes leads to the assertion that the Baroque is "not at all a style, and not a direction." This kind of statement seems to be a polemical extreme. Baroque, of course, is both an artistic style and a literary direction. But it is also a type of culture, which does not cancel, but includes the previous meanings of this term. It must be said that the general pathos of A.V. Mikhailov is very important, since the baroque is very often perceived as a style in the narrow sense of the word, i.e. as the sum of formal aesthetic devices.
The world perception of a man of the Baroque, the Baroque as an artistic system has been studied to this day, it seems, somewhat less and less well. As noted by the famous Swiss expert on baroque J. Rousset, "the idea of baroque is one of those that elude us, the more closely you examine it, the less you master it." It is very important to understand how the goal and mechanism of artistic creation is thought in the Baroque, what is its poetics, how it relates to the new worldview, captures it. Of course, A.V. is right. Mikhailov, emphasizing that the baroque is the culture of the "ready-made word", i.e. rhetorical culture, which has no direct access to reality. But this very idea of the world and man, passed through the "ready-made word", makes it possible to feel a deep socio-historical shift that took place in the consciousness of a man of the 17th century, reflecting the crisis of the Renaissance worldview. It is necessary to trace how Mannerism and Baroque correlate on the basis of this crisis, which makes Mannerism a part of the literary process of late Renaissance literature, and takes Baroque beyond it, including into a new literary stage - the 17th century. Observations that allow one to feel the difference between Mannerism and Baroque are in the excellent article by L.I. Tanaeva "Some concepts of mannerism and the study of the art of Eastern Europe at the end of the 16th and 17th centuries."
The philosophical basis of the baroque worldview is the idea of the antinomical structure of the world and man. It is possible to compare some of the constructive aspects of the vision of the Baroque (opposition of the bodily and spiritual, high and low, tragic and comic) with the medieval dualistic perception of reality. We emphasize, however, that the traditions of medieval literature are included in baroque literature in a modified form, correlate with a new understanding of the laws of life.
First of all, baroque antinomies are an expression of the desire to artistically master the contradictory dynamics of reality, to convey in the word chaos and disharmony of human existence. The very bookishness of the Baroque artistic world comes from the ideas inherited from the Middle Ages about the Universe as a book. But for a baroque man, this book is drawn as a huge encyclopedia of being, and therefore literary works in the baroque also strive to be encyclopedias, to draw the world in its completeness and decomposition into separate elements - words, concepts. In the creations of the Baroque, one can find both the traditions of Stoicism and Epicureanism, but these opposites not only fight, but also converge in a general pessimistic sense of life. Baroque literature expresses a sense of impermanence, changeability, illusion of life. Actualizing the thesis "life is a dream", well-known in the Middle Ages, the baroque draws attention primarily to the fragility of the boundaries between sleep "and" life ", to the constant doubt of a person whether he is in a state of sleep or awake, to contrasts or bizarre rapprochements between a face and a mask , "To be" and "to seem".
The theme of illusion, appearance is one of the most popular in baroque literature, which often recreates the world as a theater. It is necessary to clarify that the theatricality of the baroque is manifested not only in the dramatic perception of the ups and downs of a person's external life and his internal collisions, not only in the antinomical confrontation between the categories of the face and the mask, but in a predilection for a peculiar demonstrativeness of the artistic style, decorativeness and splendor of pictorial means, their exaggeration. Therefore, the baroque is sometimes rightly called the art of hyperbole, they speak of the domination of the principle of wastefulness of artistic means in the poetics of the baroque. Attention should be paid to the polysemantic nature of the world and language, the multivariate interpretation of images, motives, words in baroque literature. On the other hand, one must not lose sight of the fact that the baroque combines and expresses in the poetics of its works the emotional and the rational, has a kind of “rational extravagance” (S. S. Averintsev). Baroque literature is not only not alien, but organically inherent in deep didacticism, but this art sought primarily to excite and surprise. That is why one can find among the literary works of the baroque and those in which didactic functions are not expressed in a straightforward manner, which is greatly facilitated by the rejection of linearity in composition, the development of artistic conflict (this is how specific spatial and psychological baroque labyrinths arise), a complex branched system of images, metaphorical language.
We find important observations about the specifics of metaphorism in the Baroque from Yu.M. Lotman: "... here we are faced with the fact that the paths (the boundaries separating some types of paths from others acquire an exceptionally unstable character in baroque texts) are not an external replacement of some elements of the plan of expression with others, but a way of forming a special structure of consciousness." the baroque is thus not just a means to embellish a story, but a special artistic point of view.
It is also necessary to master the features of the genre system of the Baroque. The most characteristic genres developing in the mainstream of this literary movement are pastoral poetry, dramatic pastorals and pastoral novel, philosophical and didactic lyrics, satirical, burlesque poetry, comic novel, tragicomedy. But special attention should be paid to such a genre as the emblem: it embodied the most important features of baroque poetics, its allegorism and encyclopedism, a combination of visual and verbal.
Undoubtedly, one should be aware of the main ideological and artistic trends within the baroque movement, but it is necessary to warn against a narrow sociological interpretation of these trends. Thus, the division of baroque literature into "high" and "low", although it correlates with the concepts of "aristocratic" and "democratic" baroque, is not reduced to them: after all, most often the appeal to the poetics of the "high" or "lower" wing of the baroque was not dictated the social position of the writer or his political sympathies, but is an aesthetic choice, often guided by the genre tradition, the prevailing hierarchy of genres, and sometimes deliberately opposed to this tradition. One can easily be convinced, analyzing the work of many writers of the Baroque movement, that they sometimes created works of both "high" and "low" almost simultaneously, willingly resorted to contamination of "secular aristocratic" and "democratic" subjects, introduced into the sublime Baroque version of the artistic the world of burlesque, depressed characters, and vice versa. So those researchers who feel that in the baroque "the elite and the plebeian are different sides of the same wholeness" are absolutely right. Within the baroque direction, as you can see, there is an even more fractional division. One must have an idea of the peculiarities of such phenomena as cultism and conceptism in Spain, marineism in Italy, the literature of the libertines in France, and the poetry of English metaphysicians. Particular attention should be paid to the concept of "precision" applied to the phenomena of the Baroque in France, which is interpreted incorrectly both in our textbooks and in scientific works. Traditionally, "precision" is understood by domestic experts as a synonym for "aristocratic" baroque literature. Meanwhile, modern Western studies of this phenomenon not only clarify its socio-historical roots (precision arises not in the court-aristocratic, but primarily in the urban, salon bourgeois-noble environment), the chronological framework is the mid-40s - 50s XVII century (thus, for example, the novel d, Jurfe "Astrea" (1607-1627) cannot be considered as precise), but also reveal its artistic specificity as a special classicist-baroque type of creativity based on the contamination of the aesthetic principles of both directions.
It should also be remembered about the evolution of the Baroque throughout the 17th century, about its relative movement from the Renaissance-inherited "materiality" of style, the picturesqueness and brilliance of empirical details to the strengthening of philosophical generalization, symbolic-allegorical imagery, intellectuality and refined psychologism (cf., for example, baroque rogue novels of the early 17th century in Spain with a philosophical Spanish novel of the middle of the century, or the prose of S. Sorel and Pascal in France, or the poetry of the early Donne with the poetry of Milton in England, etc.). It is also important to feel the difference between the national variants of the Baroque: its particular confusion, dramatic tension in Spain, a significant degree of intellectual analytism bringing the Baroque and Classicism closer together in France, etc.
It is necessary to consider further prospects for the development of baroque traditions in literature. Of particular interest in this aspect is the problem of the relationship between baroque and romanticism. The articles listed in the bibliography will help you get acquainted with the current level of solution to this problem. The problem of studying the traditions of the Baroque in the twentieth century is also relevant: those interested in modern foreign literature can easily find among its works those whose poetics clearly echoes the Baroque (this applies, for example, to the Latin American novel of the so-called "magic realism", etc.).
Coming to the study of another important literary direction of foreign literature of the XVII century - classicism, you can adhere to the same sequence of analysis, starting with clarifying the etymology of the term "classic", clearer than the etymology of "baroque", as if capturing the attraction of classicism itself to clarity and consistency. As in the case of the Baroque, "classicism" as a definition of 17th century art, focused on a kind of competition with "ancient", antique writers, contains in its original meaning some features of classicist poetics, but does not explain all of them. And just like the writers of the Baroque, the classicists of the 17th century did not call themselves such, they began to be defined by this word in the 19th century, in the era of romanticism.
Almost until the middle of the twentieth century, the 17th century was considered by literary historians "the era of classicism." This was due not only to the underestimation of the artistic achievements of the Baroque or, on the contrary, to the overestimation of classicism (since for some countries the classicists are also the classics of national literature, this trend is "difficult to overestimate"), but above all with the objective significance of this art in the 17th century, with the fact, in particular, that theoretical reflections on artistic creation were predominantly classicistic during this period. This can be seen by referring to the anthology "Literary manifestos of Western European classicists" (Moscow, 1980). Although in the 17th century there were also baroque theorists, their concepts often gravitated towards the contamination of baroque and classicist principles, included a fair amount of rationalistic analyticism and sometimes even normativity (like the theory of the novel by the French writer M. de Scuderi), who tried to create the "rules" of this genre ).
Classicism is not only a style or direction, but just like the Baroque, a more powerful artistic system that began to take shape back in the Renaissance. When studying classicism, it is necessary to trace how the traditions of Renaissance classicism are refracted in the classicist literature of the 17th century, to pay attention to how antiquity is transformed from an object of imitation and accurate recreation, "revival" into an example of correct observance of the eternal laws of art and an object of competition. It is extremely important to remember that classicism and baroque were generated by the same time, contradictory, but common perception of the world. However, the specific sociocultural circumstances of the development of this or that country often determined a very different degree of its prevalence in France, and, for example, in Spain, England and Germany, etc. Sometimes in the literature you can find the assertion that classicism is a kind of "state" art, since its greatest flowering is associated with countries and periods characterized by an increase in the stabilization of centralized monarchical power. However, one should not confuse orderliness, discipline of thought and style, hierarchy as aesthetic principles with hierarchy, discipline, etc. as the principles of rigid statehood, and even more so to see in classicism some kind of official art. It is very important to feel the inner drama of the classicistic vision of reality, which is not eliminated, but, perhaps, also strengthened by the discipline of its external manifestations. Classicism, as it were, is trying to artistically overcome the contradiction that baroque art capriciously captures, to overcome it through strict selection, ordering, classification of images, themes, motives, all the material of reality.
You can also find statements that the philosophical basis of classicism was the philosophy of Descartes. However, I would like to warn against reducing classicism to Descartes, as, incidentally, Descartes to classicism: remember that classicist trends began to take shape in literature before Descartes, back in the Renaissance, and Descartes, for his part, generalized much that was in the air, systematized and synthesized the rationalistic tradition of the past. At the same time, undoubted "Cartesian" principles in the poetics of classicism ("separation of difficulties" in the process of artistic recreation of complex phenomena of reality, etc.) deserve attention. This is one of the manifestations of the general aesthetic "premeditation" (J. Mukarzhovsky) of classicist art.
Having got acquainted with the most important theories of European classicists, one can trace the logical justification by them of the principles of the primacy of design over embodiment, “correct” rational creativity over whimsical inspiration. It is very important to pay special attention to the interpretation in classicism of the principle of imitation of nature: nature appears as a beautiful and eternal creature, built "according to the laws of mathematics" (Galileo).
The specific principle of likelihood plays a significant role in classicism. Note that this concept is far from the common everyday use of this word, it is not at all synonymous with "truth" or "reality". As the famous modern scientist writes, "classical culture has lived for centuries with the idea that reality can in no way be mixed with plausibility." Plausibility in classicism presupposes, in addition to the ethical and psychological persuasiveness of images and situations, decency and edification, the implementation of the principle of "teaching while entertaining."
Thus, the characterization of classicism cannot be reduced to listing the rules of three unities, but these rules cannot be ignored either. For the classicists, they are, as it were, a special case of applying the universal laws of art, a way to keep the freedom of creativity within the boundaries of reason. It is necessary to realize the importance of simplicity, clarity, logical consistency of composition as important aesthetic categories. The classicists, in contrast to the Baroque artists, reject "unnecessary" artistic details, images, words and adhere to the "economy" of means of expression.
It is necessary to know how the hierarchical system of genres is built in classicism, based on the consistent breeding of “high” and “low”, “tragic” and “comic” phenomena of reality according to different genre formations. At the same time, one should pay attention to the fact that the genre theory of classicism and practice do not completely coincide: giving preference to "high" genres in theoretical reasoning - tragedy, epic, classicists tried their hand at "low" genres - satire, comedy, and even in genres non-canonical, falling out of the classicist hierarchy (such as the novel: see further on the classicist novel by M. de Lafayette).
The classicists evaluated works of art on the basis of what they considered the "eternal" laws of art, and the laws not according to custom, authority, tradition, but according to reasonable judgment. Therefore, it should be noted that the classicists think of their theory as an analysis of the laws of art in general, and not the creation of some separate aesthetic program of a school or trend. The classicists' reasoning about taste does not mean individual taste, not the capriciousness of aesthetic preferences, but "good taste" as a collective reasonable norm of "well-bred people." However, in reality, it turned out that the specific judgments of the classicists on certain issues of artistic creation, assessments of specific works differ very significantly, which led to both the polemics within classicism and the real difference between the national versions of classicist literature. It is necessary to understand the historical, social and cultural patterns of the development of literary trends in the 17th century, to understand why in Spain, for example, baroque art prevailed, and in France - classicism, why researchers talk about M. Opitz's “baroque classicism” in Germany, about a kind of harmony or the balance of baroque and classicism in the work of Milton in England, etc. It is important to feel that the real life of the literary movements of that era was not schematic, that they did not successively replace each other, but intertwined, fighting and interacting, entering into different relationships.
baroque classicism literary poetics
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Bncz & Exam: History of Foreign Literature. 17-18 centuries
Teacher: Ninel Ivanovna Vannikova
A place: 320 room
1. Phaedra - there are words "; commands passion" ;, a discourse on the nobility of Hippolytus.
2. Steadfast prince - there are words of Don Fernando "; I suffered torment, but I believe ..." ;.
3. The Steadfast Prince - a sonnet about flowers.
4. Sid - there are words "; renounce love, stand up for the father";
5. Boileau - reasoning about tragedy, there are words "; horror and compassion";
6. Fielding - a description of the table, nature sent something to the hero.
7. The steadfast prince - there are words "; you did not conquer faith, but me, in spite of
that I am dying ";.
8. Faust - the words of Mephistopheles "; I - that ..." ;. This quote was already in this thread.
9. Swift - the hero finds himself on the island of the Lilliputians.
10. Sid - the words of Jimena, there are words "; to avenge his father"; honor is mentioned.
11. The robbers - the words of Karl "; I was forced to kill an angel" ;.
12. Faust - a conversation between Faust and Wagner about the bifurcation of love into earthly and heavenly.
13. Faust - cranes are mentioned in the last line.
14. Lope de Vega - Minotaur is mentioned. (Apparently this piece:
Mixing the tragic with the funny
Terence with Seneko - but in many ways,
What to say, like the Minotaur,
But a mixture of the sublime and the funny
The crowd pleases with its diversity.
After all, the nature of those is beautiful for us,
Which is often extreme.)
15. Nun - mother is mentioned.
16. Phaedra - Athens is mentioned.
17. Faust - Mephistopheles about evil and vices.
18. Boileau - mentioned "; reptile in art";
19. Faust - refuses to master the teaching, happiness is mentioned.
20. Life is a dream - there are words "; if I sleep, do not wake me up" ;.
21. Andromache - Hector is mentioned.
22. Phaedra - the poison in the veins is mentioned (Excerpt:
Streams through my inflamed veins
Medea once brought us poison).
23. Phaedra - there are words "; justify the innocent" ;.
24. Horace - there are words "; O Rome ..." ;.
25. Call of Cthulhu - There are words "Pkh" nglui mglv "nafh Cthulhu R" leh vgah "insolent fkhtagn".
26. Fielding - If you are in trouble, and the quote begins or ends with "; OH"; say Fielding.
27. Zadig - a hermit with whom Zadig travels, throws a teenager from a fragile bridge into the river, he drowns.
28. Boileau - there are words "; under the brush of the master it is beautiful";
29. Sid - there is something like "; must fulfill my duty in return" ;.
30. Emilia Galotti - talking about the portrait.
31. Fielding - Hogarth's painting is mentioned, with which the character (Partridge's wife) is compared.
17th century.
1. Characteristics of the 17th century as a special era in the history of Western literature (the ratio of baroque and classicism)
According to the lectures of Ninelle Ivanna:
To the end. 16th c. art and literature came to a creative crisis. The Renaissance idea of human domination in the world has passed away safely. In the Renaissance, it was believed that the world is a place where a person must realize his "I", humanists believed that humanity would devote itself to the creative process. But in reality the world turned out to be the arena of bloody wars - religious, civil, aggressive (“death is our trade”). An atmosphere of severity and violence reigns in society. Increased persecution of heretics, the creation of indexes of prohibited books, tougher censorship => human harmony with the world is unattainable, a real person was imperfect in his actions (acting on the principle of "everything is allowed", it turned out to be faulty + scientific and psychological aspect of the crisis: they thought that without the medieval we can understand everything, but we could not). Geographical discoveries, discoveries in physics (Copernicus theory and not only), etc. showed that cthulhu zohavaet everyone, and the world is more complicated than it seemed, the secret of the universe is not accessible to man, the world is impossible to understand. New Universe: man is no longer the center of the universe, but a grain of sand in world chaos à perception of the world with a strong tragic coloring. Let the person think about himself again and compare his existence with all that exists. The era testifies to the infinity of space, the transience of time, man is not omnipotent => the Renaissance is replaced baroque.
Instead of a linear Renaissance perspective, there is a “strange baroque perspective”: double space, mirroring, which symbolized the illusory nature of the world.
The world is split. But not only that, he is also moving, only it is not clear where. Hence - the theme of the transience of human life and time in general, the short-term nature of a person.
The use of historical and mythological reminiscences, which are given in the form of allusions and which need to be deciphered.
The metaphor of the Baroque poets was very fond of. She created the atmosphere of an intellectual game. And play is a property of all genres of baroque (in metaphors, in conjunction of unexpected ideas and images).
The dramaturgy was distinguished by its exceptional spectacle, the transition from reality to fantasy. In drama, play led to a special theatricality à stage-on-stage reception + life-theater metaphor. Theater is also used to reveal the elusiveness of the world and the illusory nature of ideas about it.
In Calderon: "the great theater of the world", where lives are played out on the stage under the curtain of chaos. There is a clear division: the divine sphere and the earthly sphere, and the creator of the play sits on the throne, which is designed to express the entire illusory nature of human existence.
Baroque art sought to correlate man with nature, space, it is permeated with the experience of the finiteness of human existence in front of the infinity of the universe. This is the most severe internal contradiction.
German baroque arises in conditions 30-year war, tragedy of social life. Eternity is a continuation of timelessness. Creation of a new baroque harmony, unity, glorification of the moral stability of the human spirit (widespread dissemination of the ideas of stoicism). And in such conditions, when everything is bad, a certain beginning begins to emerge, on the basis of which natural chaos is overcome - the resilience of the human spirit.
It is believed that a person has an inner independence of spirit (rapprochement with the Catholic concept of free will). In the Christian religion, there is a contrast between the idea of predestination and free will (2 types of consciousness). Luther adhered to the idea of predestination (he believed that after the Fall, corruption passed into human nature => man is sinful). Reformation - the path of every person is predetermined from birth.
The doctrine of free will appeared in the 16th century. Its adherents argued that grace was given to all people from birth, and each person chooses his own path.
At the same time, classicism... Both of these systems emerge as an awareness of the crisis of the Renaissance ideals.
Classicism, as it were, resurrects the High Renaissance style. In everything, measure and good taste must be observed. A strict system of rules => restrain a riot of imagination. Rules are inherent in any creativity, and art is a type of human activity => there is no game without rules. The task of classicism is to make the rules binding. They are created by the human mind to subjugate the chaos of things. Rules are unwritten laws, they are conditional and refer to the formal organization of the work.
According to Plavskin:
17th century - the century of absolutism (the dominant form of state-va is absolutism).
17th century - the era of continuous wars in Europe. The old colonial powers - Spain, Portugal - are gradually being pushed into the background by the young bourgeois states - Holland, England; the era of capitalism begins.
The history of Europe in the 17th century. They are characterized by transition and crisis.
17th century - advances in science; scientific journals are published; scholasticism of the Middle Ages => experimental method; the dominance of mathematics and the metaphysical way of thinking.
The boundaries of the surrounding world expand to cosmic scales, the concepts of time and space are rethought as abstract, universal categories. For the 17th century. characterized by a sharp exacerbation of the philosopher., polit., ideologist. fight, cat. It was reflected in the formation and confrontation of the two dominant artistic systems in this century - classicism and baroque.
They arise as an awareness of the crisis of the Renaissance ideals. Artists of both Baroque and Classicism reject the idea of harmony; they reveal a complex interaction of personality and social polit. Wednesday; put forward the idea of the subordination of passions to the dictates of reason; in the foreground put forward intellect, reason. The role of the work as a means of educating the reader or viewer => "journalism" of literature.
2. Characteristics of the baroque.
ital. barocco - freaky
The rise of the Baroque... After the Renaissance, there was a crisis of ideas. The principle of humanism is associated with the ideas of harmony, in the center of the universe, instead of God, there is a man. Everything befits a person if he is courageous and talented. In the Middle Ages, man is opposed to nature, and in modern times, nature has been poeticized. Renaissance art is characterized by harmony in composition and images. But humanism soon faced a gross reality. The world has turned not into a kingdom of freedom and reason, but into a world of bloody wars. "We are poor in reason, and our senses have become scarce." The atmosphere of fanaticism, cruelty, violence took root in the 16th century, after the Council of Trent, which opened in 1545 in Trento on the initiative of Pope Paul III, mainly in response to the Reformation, and closed there in 1563. Persecution of heretics intensified, an index was created prohibited books. The fate of the humanists was dramatic. Harmony is inaccessible, the world is opposed to the ideals of the individual. The ideas of humanism were found to be inconsistent. Human qualities began to turn into negative: self-realization is equal to immoralism, crimes. Another important aspect of the crisis- psychological. People believed that you can find out everything, only the church and medieval prejudices interfere. Geographical and physical discoveries, Copernicus' theory said that the world is more complicated. Having solved one riddle, a person stumbles upon 10 new ones. "An abyss has opened, full of stars." Infinity is an attribute of the universe, and man is a grain of sand in the vast world. The illusions of Renaissance have been superseded by a new vision of the world. Renaissance is replaced by baroque, which "rushes between doubts and contradictions." Bizarre, expressive forms, important for baroque art dynamics, disharmony, expression... Linear perspective is replaced by " strange baroque perspective»: Double angles, mirror images, shifted scales. Designed to express the elusiveness of the world and the illusory nature of our ideas about it. “Man is no longer the center of the world, but the quintessence of dust” (Hamlet). Opposed: high and science, earthly and heavenly, spiritual and physical, reality and illusion. There is no clarity or wholeness in anything. The world is split, in endless movement and time. This running makes human life terribly fleeting, hence the theme of man's short-term nature, the frailty of everything.
Spanish poetry... Contemporaries considered poetry Gongor(1561-1627) difficult. Alluchies, metaphorical descriptions. Romance "About Angelica and Medora". (If you want to read: /~lib/gongora.html#0019). Incomprehensibility. Withered roses are a blush on Medora's cheeks. Chinese Diamond - Princess Angelica, who has not yet experienced love. Complicated literary description - the closed nature of Gongora's poetry, the atmosphere of the game. A sophisticated metaphor, a conceptual convergence of distant images - baroque game(characteristic of Gongora, Grassian, Calderon, Fkhtagn).
S zhorn:
The Baroque poets were very fond of metaphor. She created the atmosphere of an intellectual game. And play is a property of all genres of baroque (in metaphors, in conjunction of unexpected ideas and images). In drama, the play led to a special theatricality à the stage-on-stage technique + the life-theater metaphor (Calderon's auto Great Theater of the World is the apotheosis of this metaphor). Theater is also used to reveal the elusiveness of the world and the illusory nature of ideas about it.
And in such conditions, when everything is bad, a certain beginning begins to emerge, on the basis of which natural chaos is overcome - the perseverance of the human spirit.
At the same time, classicism emerges. Both of these systems emerge as an awareness of the crisis of the Renaissance ideals.
Artists of both Baroque and Classicism reject the idea of harmony, which underlies the humanist Renaissance concept. But at the same time, baroque and classicism are clearly opposed to each other.
Lecture... In drama, the baroque play is initially manifested in entertainment, illusionism, the transition from reality to fantasy... The theater of metaphor is the likeness of human life to theater (Shakespeare "As You Like It"). The idea of the theater determined the idea of the world, hence life-theater theme... Especially with Calderon - "The Great Theater of the World." God is playing the theater of life by raising the curtain of chaos. The illusory nature of human existence. The baroque gave a more dramatic view of the world and of man. The illusory is more correlated by man not only with nature, but also with the society of society (a strange phrase). The comic nature of human existence. Tragic dissonance: The pursuit of happiness is a cruel historical process. Much is said about this in the poetry of the German Baroque (they wrote during the 30-year war).
Griffius, "Tears of the Fatherland", 1636 d. In the face of adversity, there was no hope. The treasury of the soul has been plundered into timelessness. With intense experiences and tragic contradictions, the organizing principle, the unshakable basis of human existence: inner moral fortitude of the human spirit... The philosophy of stoicism is the independence of the human spirit, the ability to withstand all circumstances.
Catholic concept of free will. Predestination (Aurelius Augustine) and the doctrine of free will are contrasted. The Reformation, represented by Luther, developed the ideas of predestination. A person is happy and sinful if he needs help from above in the form of divine grace. Another idea (for Catholics): everyone makes their own choice, in favor of grace or evil. These ideas became the philosophical foundation of Calderon's dramas. The Steadfast Prince, for example, contrasts the Christian and Moorish worlds
In drama: there is no strict standardization, there is no unity of place and time, a mixture of tragic and comic in one work à the main genre tragicomedy, baroque theater - action theater... Lope de Vega writes about all of this in his New Guide to Comedy Writing.
3. Features of the philosophical tragedies of Calderon ("; Life is a dream"; etc.) The 17th century in Spain is the golden age of drama. Lope de Vega opened it, and Calderon closed it
Biography : Calderon was born in Madrid, the son of Don Diego Calderon, secretary of the Treasury, a middle-class nobleman. The mother of the future playwright, Anna Maria de Henao, was the daughter of a gunsmith. His father prepared Calderon for a spiritual career: he was educated at the Madrid Jesuit College, also studied at the universities of Salamanca and Alcala de Henares. However, in 1620 Calderon left his studies for military service.
As a playwright, Calderon made his debut with the play Love, Honor and Power, for which he received praise from his teacher, Lope de Vega, and by the time of his death, was already considered the first playwright in Spain. In addition, he received recognition at court. Philip IV ordained Calderon a knight of the Order of St. James (Santiago) and commissioned plays for him for the court theater, arranged in the recently built palace of Buen Retiro. Calderon was provided with the services of the best musicians and stage designers of that time. The plays written when Calderon was a court playwright, the use of complex stage effects is noticeable. For example, the play "The Beast, Lightning and Stone" was presented on an island in the middle of a lake in the palace park, and the audience watched it, sitting in boats.
In the years 1640-1642, performing military duties, Calderon participated in the suppression of the "Reaper Rebellion" (national-separatist movement) in Catalonia. In 1642, for health reasons, he left military service and three years later was awarded a pension. Later he became the Tertiary of the Order of St. Francis (that is, he took the monastic vows of the order, but remained in the world), and in 1651 Calderon was ordained a priest; This was probably caused by events in his personal life (the death of his brother, the birth of an illegitimate son), about which there is little reliable information, as well as the beginning of the persecution of the theater. After his ordination, Calderon gave up writing secular plays and turned to allegorical plays based on plots borrowed mainly from the Bible and Holy Tradition, the so-called auto, performances given during religious festivals. However, turning to religious topics, he interpreted many problems in the spirit of early Christianity with its democracy and asceticism never followed the principles of the Orthodox Church. In 1663 he was appointed personal confessor of Philip IV (royal chaplain); this honorary position for Calderon was retained by the king's successor, Charles II. Despite the popularity of the plays and the favor of the royal court, Calderon's last years were marked by poverty. Calderon died on May 25, 1681. It's so contrasting, isn't it?
Inheriting the tradition of Spanish Renaissance literature, Calderón. at the same time he expressed his disappointment in the humanism of the Renaissance. Caleron in the very nature of man sees the source of evil and cruelty, and the only means of reconciliation with life is the Christian faith with its demand to curb pride... The writer's work is contradictory. the motives of the Renaissance and the Baroque are combined.
Calderon's dramas (they include 51 plays) are usually divided into several categories: dramas historical, philosophical, religious, biblical, mythological and "dramas of honor" . But most fully the spirit of the Spanish Baroque and the genius of Calderon manifested itself in the philosophical dramas, which in Spain in the XVII century. took the form of a religious-philosophical or historical-philosophical drama.
Plays of this type touch upon fundamental questions of being, first of all - human destiny, free will, causes of human suffering... The action takes place most often in "exotic" countries for Spain (for example, Ireland, Poland, Muscovy); the historical and local flavor is emphatically conditional and is intended to accentuate their timeless problems. Concrete feelings and actions for him are more important in "cloak and sword comedies", but in philosophical ones it was not so important. In them, he combines features of historical drama, religious-philosophical and theological allegory of the auto type (performances on church holidays). At the center of the problem meaning of life, free will, freedom of human existence, education of a humane and wise ruler... Here he continues the ideas of the Renaissance with its humanism and in general, but begins the ideas of the baroque, which I will talk about a little further. Examples: "Life is a dream", "The Magic Magician", "St. Patrick's Purgatory".
Calderon had a wonderful ability in his works to combine the real picture of the world with its abstract, philosophical generalization. The parallels are easy to guess, it was especially easy to guess then, because he wrote, if not on the topic of the day, then. at least on the problems that worried society, drawing tragic contradictions and other schools of society.
World perception in the Baroque style: pessimism(life is full of troubles, it is generally a dream, moreover, these troubles also contradict each other), but with features of eostoicism(everyone quickly remembered philosophy!). Their life is chaotic, illusory, imperfect.. ("What is life? Madness, mistake. What is life? Deception of the veil. And the best moment is delusion, Since life is only a dream, And dreams are only dreams"). Life is a comedy, life is a dream. However, the formula is not absolute for the poet and does not apply to love.
Doubt about earthly values and craving for the supersensible in the drama of Calderon are explained by theological dogmatism, and widespread in Spain in the XVII century. loss of confidence in the historical perspective and a sense of the chaos of the world. tragic disorder of life, passing through the plays, from the first verses makes clear the persistence with which the idea of "life is a dream" is carried out. The same tragic sensation explains the heightened consciousness of the “guilt of birth” - the sinfulness of man. At the same time, Calderon's Baroque philosophy, which brought up willingness to courageously face a difficult fate did not necessarily imply obedience to providence. From the beginning of the drama, along with the theme of the disorder of the world, the guilt of birth, the theme of rebellion arises, energetically expressed in the monologue of Sehismundo, imprisoned by his father in the tower ("... And with a more extensive spirit, / Do I need less freedom?")
It depends only on the person how he will play his role in this theater of life. It is not divine providence that will help a person to play his part well or badly, but a mind that resists the chaos of life, is heading towards the truth. He sees in the mind the power that can help a person curb passions... In dramas, he shows painful throwing this mind, who is struggling to bring order to this chaos. Life is movement, a sharp clash of contrasts. Despite the ordination and studying to be a theologian, he does not call for humility, since, I repeat, conformism is alien to him, but calls for perseverance, praises willpower, in general, is close to early theological views. Even in The Steadfast Prince (1629), where religious and absolutist sentiments may seem driven to fanaticism, Calderon thinks in more universal terms than Catholicism. People of different faiths can act at the same time.
The intentions of the heroes violate something at first glance inexplicable, but in fact it is quite material (as in Life there is a dream).
Compared to classicism, the drama "Life is a Dream" gives more room for emotions and imagination... Its form is free, and the stage space is no less wide open to infinity than in The Steadfast Prince. No wonder the romantics were so fascinated by such examples of the image of a person in the face of infinity. The counter-reformational ideology of spiritual violence was opposed not by the obviousness of the rightness of harmoniously developed, noble, full of vitality, bodily and mental beauty of people, as in Shakespeare or Lope, but firmness of will in defeat, confused and seeking intellect.
Calderon's philosophical drama shows the depth of the spiritual and intellectual life of a man of the 17th century, his the desire to break through the sea of troubles find a way out of the terrible labyrinth of fate.
4. Dramas of Calderon's honor
The problem of honor was common for many dramas of the 16-17th century (in Spain this issue was very acute, because in connection with the reconquista, a large number of "caballeros" ("horsemen"), knights who went to reconquer Spanish lands among the Moors; upon returning from hostilities, these people brought both a constant desire and willingness to fight to the death, and high notions of the honor that they allegedly gained in battles - which gave rise to the practice of frequent duels in Spanish high society), and Calderon the textbook "History of Foreign Literature of the 17th century", along with comedies about love (The Invisible Lady) and philosophical dramas (Life is a dream), the following dramas of honor stand out: "The Doctor of His Honor" (a question of marital honor), "The Steadfast Prince" (honor as respect for himself, loyalty to the idea (preservation of the fortress of Ceuta for Spain)), "Salamean mayor" (honor as a dignity of all people, growing out of virtue, inherent not only to noblemen), etc. Of the above, we should be familiar with only two e first dramas.
In The Doctor of His Honor, honor is practically a living being (Gutierre says: “Together we, honor, remained”), a totem, the preservation of which is made a high priority (dishonored, as he believes, don Gutierre goes without a doubt to kill his wife by someone else's hands), actions within the framework of her protection - even murder! - recognized as legal (the king, notified of the murder by the barber, does not impose punishment on Don Gutierre, moreover, he gives him Dona Leonor, and at the end of the drama the following dialogue takes place between the betrothed spouses: (Don Gutierre) But just remember, Leonor, / My hand was washed in blood.(Dona Leonor) I am not surprised or scared... (Don Gutierre) But I was a doctor of my honor, / And I have not forgotten the healing.(Dona Leonor) Remember, if need be.(Don Gutierre) I accept this condition. As you can see, no one is embarrassed by what happened - murder in the name of preserving honor is taken for granted, and the "young" are persuaded to adhere to this rule in the future). Moreover, it is the appearance that is important (in front of the king, Don Gutierre, already tormented by terrible jealousy, repeats about his wife as a model of innocence and the absence of any suspicion in her relation), and to start actions to protect honor, not even the crime itself, but the slightest glimpse of suspicion is enough: dona Mencia, married not for love, but loyal to her husband Don Gutierre, in every possible way rejects the harassment of her beloved Don Enrique in the past; however, Gutierre's suspicions, Don Enrique's dagger found in his house, and Gutierre's overheard, who was confused with Don Enrique Mencia, his wife's speech to the Infante, asking him to stop his "attacks" - all this, plus Gutierre's letters to Mencia to the Infanta with a request not to flee the country, so as not to give gossip to tarnish the honor of Mencia and her husband - enough for the Don to condemn his beloved and honored wife to death - for, as he writes to his wife, having already decided to kill her, Gutierre: Love adores you, honor hates you, and therefore one kills you and the other informs you. " But even Mencia herself, dying, as Ludovico conveys her words, who opened her veins, does not blame her husband for what happened.
Honor in this drama appears as a terrifying tyrant, whose power is recognized by everyone, she also authorizes any actions to preserve and protect it.
It is important to note that in reality such orders, the murder of wives with impunity, were not a constant phenomenon (this is proved by the chronicles), i.e. drama is not a reflection of the typical. Rather, it serves to display in a critical state of toughness and intransigence in the understanding of noble honor.
The "steadfast prince" Don Fernando and the Muslim commander Mulei are equally familiar and understandable the word honor - and this brings together two heroes belonging to the opposing worlds - the strict and clear, sunny Catholic world of Spain, whose missionaries are the arriving troops led by Don Fernando, later - with King Alfonso, and the mysterious and beautiful "night" Muslim world. And from the moment of their first meeting - Don Fernando wins the duel on the battlefield of Mulei, but releases him according to the rules of honor, which causes genuine respect for the Moor - and later - when Mulei is entrusted with the actually condemned to death Don Fernando - heroes like would compete, who will show more respect for honor, who deserves it more. In the dispute between the Moor and the Infante, where, on the one hand, Mulei invites the Infanta to escape from prison, so that he, Mulei, would answer with his head before King Fez for the escape of the prisoner, and on the other hand, the Infante tells Mulei not to attempt to free him, and to live happily the rest of his life with his beloved Phoenix, it is Fernando who wins in the dispute, and there is no escape, thus the Spanish prince sacrifices his freedom and life for the happiness of his friend. Moreover, after death, the ghost of the prince assists in the fulfillment of the goal of this sacrifice - he still unites Mulei and Phoenix in marriage.
But the adherence to the highest honor is reflected not only in this - Don Fernando sacrifices his life, refusing to become a ransom for the Ceuta belonging to Christians (he tears up a letter from King Alfonso to King Fez, proposing such a "bargaining", and refuses to change his life on Ceuta in the future, for which he is thrown into prison in unbearable conditions), because the Infant gives his life in the name of the idea, the triumph of the "sunny" Christian world, and therefore he lives in the most difficult conditions and dies without regrets about his bitter fate.
In the "Salamean Alcalde", written with significant transformations based on the work of Lope de Vega, honor appears as an ability for virtue, moral purity and innocence, which some noblemen are deprived of (contrary to the opinion about the transfer of "honor" only by inheritance in a noble family), but which Ordinary people also possess, for example, the peasant Pedro (an alkald is something like a head judge), from whose daughter a passing army captain steals honor. Honor in the understanding of Calderon in "Alcalda" appears to be the highest good, for the sake of returning her to his daughter, and for this the captain is obliged to marry her, the peasant Pedro, perceiving honor as a great moral treasure, is ready to give all his property to the captain, and if this is not enough , then give yourself and your son into slavery. So in the name of honor, the presence of which among the peasants is disputed by some negative characters of the drama, Pedro is ready to do all the material benefits and even freedom.
French history literature/ A.L. Stein, M.N. Chernevich, M.A. Yakhontova. - M., 1988. Readers 1. Artamonov, S. D. Foreignliterature17 -18 cc.: anthology; educational ...
Annotated program of discipline / module "history of foreign literature"
Discipline programHistoryforeignliterature17 -18 cc Historyforeignliteratures XVII-XVIII cc
Annotated program of discipline / module "history of foreign literature" (1)
SolutionDestruction of the optimistic model. Interchange specifics Historyforeignliterature17 -18 cc... (10 hours) Topic 1. Poetics of the Baroque in ... Moscow State University. Ser. 9. 1995. No. 1. Melikhov O. V. Historyforeignliteratures XVII-XVIII cc... Methodical instructions. M., 1968. Mehring ...
After completing this chapter, the student will:
know
- about the existence of various principles of periodization of the cultural and historical process;
- causes of the crisis of Renaissance humanism;
- the content of the new concept of man, formed in the 17th century;
- basic principles of aesthetics and poetics of classicism and baroque;
be able to
- to highlight the leading feature in the content of the 17th century, defining its specificity as a special cultural and historical era;
- to characterize the changes in the outlook and worldview of a man of the 17th century;
- to identify elements of baroque and classicist poetics in a work of art;
own
- an idea of the main trends in the historical and cultural process of the 17th century;
- the idea of the relativity of the confrontation between baroque and classicism;
- the basic principles of poetics and aesthetics of classicism.
Among modern historians and researchers of culture there are those who are suspicious of the existing principles of the periodization of the history of human society. Some of them believe that "human nature at all times strives for constancy" and therefore the search for differences between successive generations is fundamentally meaningless. Others are sure that the changes do not take place in accordance with some kind of historical logic, but under the influence of certain outstanding personalities, therefore, it would be more reasonable to call historical periods by the names of such figures ("The Epoch of Beethoven", "The Epoch of Napoleon", etc.) ... However, these ideas have not yet had a noticeable impact on the science of history, and most of the humanities are based on traditional periodization.
At the same time, the 17th century creates some difficulties in defining its specificity as an independent cultural and historical era. The complexity is indicated by the very terminological designation - "Seventeenth century". Adjacent epochs are called "Renaissance" and "Enlightenment", and the names themselves contain an indication of the content of these eras and the fundamental ideological principles. The term "Seventeenth century" marks only the position on the chronological axis. Attempts were repeatedly made to find other designations for this period (the era of the Counter-Reformation, the era of Absolutism, the Baroque era, etc.), but none of them caught on, since it did not fully reflect the nature of the era. And yet, despite the inconsistency and heterogeneity of this historical segment, many scholars point to transitivity as the main feature of the 17th century as a cultural and historical era.
In a broad historical perspective, any era is a transition from one historical stage to another, but the 17th century occupies a special position in this series: it acts as a link between the Renaissance and the Enlightenment. Many tendencies in various spheres of life of European society, which originated in the depths of the Renaissance, received their logical conclusion and form only in the 18th century, so the “intermediate” century was a time of radical changes. These changes primarily affected the economy: feudal relations were actively supplanted by capitalist ones, which led to the strengthening of the positions of the bourgeoisie, which began to claim a more influential role in Western European society. To a large extent, the struggle of the new class for the place of iodine by the sun caused social cataclysms in various countries - the bourgeois revolution in England, which ended with the execution of King Charles I, an attempt at a coup d'etat in France in the middle of the century, called the Frondes, peasant uprisings that swept across Italy and Spain.
Since the strengthening of new economic relations in the countries of Western Europe took place at different rates, the balance of forces in the international arena also underwent changes in the 17th century. Spain and Portugal lost their former economic power and political influence, England, Holland and France came to the fore in European history, where capitalism developed more dynamically. This new division of Western Europe became the reason for the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), one of the longest and most bloody wars of modern times. In this military conflict, in which the Habsburg League, which united mainly Catholic countries (Spain, Austria, the Catholic principalities of Germany), was opposed by the Protestant princes of Germany, France, Sweden, Denmark, supported by England and Holland. According to historians, more than 7 million people out of a population of 20 million died on the part of the Habsburg League alone. It is not surprising that contemporaries compared this event with the Last Judgment. Descriptions of the horrors of the Thirty Years' War are often found in the works of German literature of this period. Hans Jakob Christophfel Grimmelshausen presented a detailed and very gloomy picture of the disasters that befell Germany during the war years in his novel The Adventures of Simplicissimus Simplicis (1669).
The basis for the conflict between European states was not only economic and political contradictions, but also religious ones. In the XVII century. the Catholic Church, in order to correct its shaky positions and regain its former influence, begins a new round of struggle against the Reformation. This movement was named Counter-reformation. The Church, well aware of the propaganda potential of art, encourages the penetration of religious themes and motives into it. The baroque culture turned out to be more open to such an introduction; it more often and more willingly turned to religious subjects and images. Naturally, one of the countries where the Baroque flourished was Spain, the main stronghold of the Coitre Reformation in Europe.