The middle of the 16th century was the time of the completion of the unification of Rus' and the centralization of power. Ivan IV, later called the Terrible, ascends the throne. But for now, due to the prince’s youth, Elena Glinskaya, a powerful, intelligent and extremely educated woman for that time, rules on his behalf.

The main event during her regency was the first monetary reform, and in fact, the reorganization of the entire financial and monetary system of the united Russian principality.

In 1534, the minting of a new coin, uniform for the entire state, began. From now on, special, heavy, silver coins with the image of a horseman with a spear - kopecks - were made from silver hryvnia. The name quickly caught on among the people and from now on the term “kopek” does not go out of use.

The introduction of the penny, the formation of a new money supply and the withdrawal from use of numerous - cut, frayed, even counterfeit - old money, previously printed in abundance in each principality, became the main achievement of Elena Glinskaya’s monetary reform. It was she who laid the foundation for the modern monetary system and largely predetermined the development of the Russian state. The creation of a single unified monetary system contributed to the unification of Russian lands and the strengthening of trade relations, both internal and external.

Reform of Alexei Mikhailovich

By 16654, there was a need for a new monetary reform, designed to streamline the circulation of silver coins in circulation - kopecks, dengas and half rubles. With the development of the economy, an urgent need arose for a monetary unit of a larger denomination than the existing penny, since large trade transactions were accompanied by a huge number of coins. At the same time, small transactions required a monetary unit capable of satisfying the needs of retail trade. The absence of large and small monetary units significantly slowed down the country's economic growth.

There was another reason for the reform. Alexey Mikhailovich continued the unification of the lands of the Eastern Slavs. During his reign, the lands of Ukraine and Belarus were annexed, on the territory of which European-style coins were used. To complete the unification, it was necessary not only to develop a single exchange rate between European and Russian coins, but to create a new, unified monetary system.

The first step in the reform was the issue of the ruble - a new coin reprinted from European thalers. However, the name “ruble” was not assigned to these coins, despite the fact that the word “ruble” was stamped on the reverse side along with the date. Thalers in Rus' were called “efimkas,” and this name was firmly attached to the new coins of Alexei Mikhailovich.

Along with silver efimkas, half a half rubles appeared in the monetary system, printed on quarters of a thaler. The penny still remained in circulation - it was still printed on elongated and cut silver wire using the technology of the times of Ivan IV.

The next step of the monetary reform was the issuance of copper coins - fifty dollars, half fifty dollars, hryvnia, altyn and groshevik. The exchange rate of copper money was forcibly set by the state, and its circulation was officially permitted only in the European part of Russia.

However, despite the initially good goal - increasing turnover and developing trade - Alexei Mikhailovich’s monetary reform ended very poorly. Due to the uncontrolled and excessive issuance of copper coins, this type of money actually depreciated. In addition, the artificial restriction of turnover - the treasury was paid only in copper money, and taxes were collected exclusively in silver - led to the fact that trade for copper actually ceased.

Forced circulation of copper money by the state resulted in popular unrest and riots of starving peasants. In the history of Rus', one of the largest such protests was called the Moscow Copper Riot. As a result, the treasury was forced to withdraw copper pennies minted in huge quantities from circulation, exchanging them for silver.

When did the first money appear in Rus'? In what form were they used and for what? We will talk about all this today.

In the 9th century in Rus', animal skins, stones, and food were considered money. But the most valuable commodity in Rus' was Russian furs. Our forest was very rich in various animals. This attracted traders from the East, especially the Byzantine Empire, where gold coins were already minted. This is how money appeared in Rus'.

Western European coins were also imported into Rus', and therefore money in Rus' was called “zlatniki” and “serebrenniki”. Then it came up with its own Russian name - the ruble. A silver ingot from Novgorod was called a ruble, and half of it was called a half.

Throughout the history of the existence of Ancient Rus', money and its types

There were many, many names. At first they were called zlatniks and silver coins, then hryvnias of silver, then Prague groschen, dirhams, kuns, nogat, pools, money. The list could take a very long time, and many of the names are unknown to us. But paper money came to our country late, under Tsarina Catherine II.

The history of money in Rus' is full of mysteries. The modern ruble coin is not at all similar to the ancient money that preceded it. A few centuries earlier, in its place there was the skin of a fur-bearing animal.

The emergence of money plays a key role in the development of the ancient economy, trade, and crafts. The history of money traces the history of the founding of a state, its mentality, the path to sovereignty and identity. No money means no state and no production. Therefore, money has not always served as a means to create financial comfort for citizens. Their general historical significance attracted famous scientists, whose scientific ordeals culminated in unraveling the nature of money and clarifying the relationship between it and the state of the country.

In the beginning, it was customary to consider scraps of fabric, stones, and skins as financial means.. But the fabrics deteriorated, the skins became damp and were susceptible to destruction by moths, the shells were quite fragile, the stones were heavy and inconvenient, especially when the purchase was substantial. The existence of barter exchanges slowed down the growth of trade; it was also not always possible to determine the value of things. The creation of a system of banknotes brought world history to a new stage of development. The world is divided into buyers and sellers.

Convenient iron money was loved not only by Russian people, but also by residents of all continents. The minting of coins covered the whole world with its power and became a true innovation against the backdrop of payment using skins and metal ingots. Each powerful medieval state was distinguished by a special coin. Since statehood in Rus' was slowed down by endless military conflicts and attacks by foreign troops, there was no national currency, which did not affect the sense of patriotism and self-awareness of the Russians. Arab dirhams suited the inhabitants of Rus' as the main currency notes. Roman denarii served as an auxiliary currency. Fine Byzantine coins were also the most commonly found on the Russian market.

Monetary units, regardless of their origin, bore original Russian names, which were assigned to the skins of fur-bearing animals: “rezana”, “nogata”, “kuna”, etc. Colorful names, isn’t it? If you listen to them, you can find a logical approach: “kuna” is the skin of a marten, “nogata” is a piece of skin from the leg of an animal, “rezana” is a fragment from the skin of the head of an animal, which was less valued.

When do we start talking about the history of the origin of money specifically in Rus'? We trace the origins back to the circulation of foreign money, but starting from the 10th century the situation changed irrevocably. Rus' turned into a powerful state with its own religion, culture and currency.

Vladimir Krasno Solnyshko – the dawn of Russian statehood

Dirhams from the Arab Caliphate, called “kuns,” circulated in Rus' thanks to Arab merchants. But in the 10th century, the flow of silver coins with Arabic script stopped. They were replaced by roughly minted Roman denarii. But the reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich brought new trade and economic relations and a new faith to Rus'. Baptism in 988, crushing victories in wars, established relations with Byzantium - everything was conducive to the creation of new banknotes. This is where the history of the emergence of money in Russia began.

Active production of “zlatniks” and “silver coins” began. Since the idea of ​​​​creating Russian money itself was not new, they inherited the characteristic features of Arab and Byzantine coinage.

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Free assessment of Russian and USSR coins

It should be noted that the trade value of the coins was not as high as, for example, the cultural and political value. Zlatniks and silver coins instilled in the people love for God, reverence for religious faith and the prince. If there had been an economic need for money, it would have existed, but, demonstrating to the resident of Kievan Rus his main priorities, the coin depreciated 30 years after its appearance and disappeared for three centuries.

Where to get money from?

The history of the development of money in Rus' does not hide difficult periods of struggle for Russian statehood. The Tatar-Mongol yoke strangled trade, blocked the flow of money to Russian lands, and foreign economic relations changed their direction. The highly developed Byzantium, with its spiritual culture and political power, ceased to be the closest ally of Rus'.

Interesting video about the appearance of money:

Silver and gold became the rarest guests in Kievan Rus, since there was no one to import precious metals, and their deposits were not found. In a word, the difficult 13th century deprived Kievan Rus not only of its sovereignty, but also of everything it had accumulated, including its own money. Golden Horde dirhams served as the national currency. But the coins of gold and silver sank into the abyss of time and oppression. There were some items that were used for petty trade, but they did not carry any political significance.

But why is the coinless period still fruitful from a historical point of view? Because it was in the 13th century that the Russian monetary unit, the ruble, appeared. But it was not a paper bill or even a coin. The silver bar, created in Novgorod, became the forefather of our monetary unit.

Renaissance

Or maybe it’s the 14th century, with which the dawn of the Russian national currency began again! This dawn was driven by cultural and economic upsurge. Despite being under the Horde yoke, the Russian lands responded to the onset of the Renaissance with an increase in trade and the formation of new trade relations. North-Eastern Rus' soon recovered from the Tatar raids. Trade grew stronger in the cities of the Russian principalities. Indeed, Rus' in the 14th century was warlike, distrustful and fragmented: each prince tried to create an independent political space. And the coins began to fall again.

The history of money in Rus' has not known a richer and more turbulent period. Each principality minted unique coins glorifying princes and God: Russian people have always been distinguished by piety. The princes grew bolder, and a variety of coins flooded Kievan Rus. Over the course of some fifty years (the end of the 14th century), coinage appeared in Moscow, Ryazan, Novgorod, Rostov, Tver, Yaroslavl, etc. I would like to remind you that coinage as such was absent in Rus' for about three centuries, which was the reason for the low quality of coinage . Under Yaroslav the Wise it was a masterpiece, and in new Rus' it was a piece of wire struck with a coin with an image. The Arab image did not leave Russian money for a long time.

During the Renaissance, Russian silver coins began to be called “dengi,” which means “ringing.” Metal money still remained the only means of payment. They prevailed in money circulation even with the introduction of paper banknotes and banknotes. In addition to silver money, copper pools were made. Both types of money were used as a full-fledged means of payment and settlement.

Iron money of the Moscow state

The Muscovite state began with Moscow, a strong principality under the reign of Dmitry Donskoy. As already mentioned, this principality is one of the first to resume minting coins after a long period without coins. After the victory of Sultan Totamysh on the Kulikovo field, Dmitry Donskoy was forced to pay tribute. We again observe impeccable adherence to Tatar-Arab traditions in Moscow coinage. The permanent image of the prince adorned the obverse. On the reverse there is a distorted and illegible Arabic inscription “Sultan Tokhtamysh”.

In the 15th century, the political fragmentation of Rus' was manifested in the abundance of mints in Rus'. There were about 20 of them. The variety of shapes, images, materials and sizes confused traders, therefore, trade relations became difficult.

The coins still demonstrated the power of their creators and the religious beliefs of the people. Ryazan coins showed the Prince's name and coat of arms, while Tver coins showed hunters with weapons and animals. On the coins of Novgorod, Saint Sophia was minted, who was considered the guardian of the territory, and a city resident who accepted her blessing. The Novgorod coin cannot be confused with coins of other principalities: the addition of “Veliky Novgorod” clarified the history of its origin. The Pskov coins also contained information about the mint: “Pskov money” was indicated on the obverse. In Rostov, there were coins with the image of the confession of John the Baptist and the name of the ruling prince. There were also primitive options - an image of the prince’s head in full face and profile.

All these characteristics of the coinage indicated a real need for reform of monetary policy. Russian lands, under the rule of princes or the people's council, were united into an integral state, and the circulation of a nth number of various banknotes caused difficulties even earlier, not to mention the new period of development.

The reform of the monetary circulation system was introduced in 1534. The changes brought precision and clarity to the monetary circulation system. Now in the centralized Russian state there were only three mints: Pskov, Novgorod and Moscow. The same type of national money was produced in these yards.

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Interesting facts about money

Further development of coinage

The creation of the Moscow state from individual principalities, scattered like pearls on Russian lands and on the pages of history, became a major milestone that determined the development of culture, economy and international trade. Throughout the entire 16th and even half of the 17th centuries, the same coins were consistently in circulation in the Moscow state: kopek (the name was taken from the image of a warrior with a spear that was minted on it), denga (valued 2 times less than a kopeck), half (1/ 4 kopecks).

It would seem that the standardization of money should simplify the process of trade and money circulation, but due to the uniformity of denominations, new problems arose. Then they counted not by kopecks, but by altyns (6 kopecks), dengi, and a little later - hryvnias (20 money), half rubles, rubles (2 half rubles). The cost of goods in the barn books was recorded, for example, not 20 kopecks, but “3 altyn and 2 dengi.” Neither the hryvnia, nor the altyn, nor the poltina existed as a type of coin. These were nothing more than counting units. The hryvnia is not a monetary sign, but the weight of a silver bar for which a necklace of 20 silver money could be exchanged. The ruble in the form that we know now did not exist. It existed in a counting abstraction, but in reality it was a bag of “scale” coins.

Why did the coins of the Moscow State receive the nickname “scales”? The technology for making coins has hardly changed. Silver was “dragged”, i.e. they rolled a thin wire out of it, chopped it into equal sections, flattened them, obtaining teardrop-shaped tokens, and then struck them with a coin. These were thin plates the size of a fingernail, which really resembled scales. From the significant year 1534 until the 17th century, the design of coins remained unchanged. And Ivan the Terrible, and Boris Godunov, and Peter I remained true to tradition: the denomination of the coins also did not change. A noble man had huge boxes filled with “scales.” And the minting did not stop under any circumstances.

The coinage of the Moscow state was adapted to any historical and political conditions. Even during the Polish-Lithuanian intervention at the dawn of the 17th century, the militia resisted the invaders, producing coins on which the name of the deceased king of the glorious Rurik dynasty was immortalized (this was Fyodor Ivanovich). Although an official order was issued in Moscow to mint coins with low weight and the name of the Polish king Vladislav, who was proclaimed the Russian Tsar. When Mikhail Romanov ascended the throne, the previously existing system of money was restored. It was 1613.

There have been repeated attempts to counterfeit money and issue coins with a different denomination.

The history of the appearance of money in Russia has seen amazing Polish-Russian coins with double denominations, Finnish-Russian pennies, Russian-Georgian money, which never took root in the monetary circulation of the Moscow state.

1654 marked the beginning of the minting of long-awaited coins with a substantial denomination. Rubles, half-rubles, half-half-rubles coexisted with the “efimka”. "Efimka" was borrowed from Western European cultures. It was an ordinary thaler with a coin countermark and an issue date of 1655. But the “efimki” were not popular among the Russian people either: the exotic appearance did not inspire confidence.

The order to mint copper coins, which had no external differences from silver coins, shook the quiet haven of popular trust. Copper money was an economical option for the Moscow state, which did not mine precious materials. They had to be purchased from other countries, and silver utensils had to be melted down to obtain the necessary raw materials. It was expensive and troublesome. All transactions with silver and gold took place strictly under state control; illegal import and export was threatened with severe punishment. The arrival of copper coins in place of silver coins caused widespread discontent. In 1663, a popular revolt arose, and the new money with a large sign sank into oblivion, leaving behind the traditional kopecks, dengi and half rubles.

A. Accounting.

B. Estimated.

C. Safe.

D. Exchange.

B. Unitary institutions.

D .

A. Estimated.

B. Exchange.

C. Accounting.

D. Safe.

A. Coin offices.

B. Trading houses.

C. Commercial enterprises.

D. Commercial banks.

A. We were engaged in the business of money changers.

ents.

A. Treasurers.

B. Logisticians.

C. Patricia.

D . Moneylenders.

The State Bank of the Russian Empire was created

569. A public partnership called "..." functioned in 1619 in Venice.

A. By the bank.

B. Center.

C. Zhirobank.

D. Mortgage.

570. Monetary transactions in Ancient Rome were carried out by:

A. Argentaria.

B. Depositories.

C. Accountants.

D. Quaestors.

571. To eliminate the monopoly of temples in carrying out monetary transactions, ancient states from the 7th century. BC. steel
independently carry out:

A. Trade transactions.

B. Exchange transactions.

C. Minting of coins.

D. Acceptance of deposits.

572. In Ancient Rome, money changers were engaged in:

A. Conservatives.

B. Commission agents.

C. Numularia.

D. Tamkars.

573. The first banks of the modern type arose:

A. VITALY.

B. In Germany.

C. In France.

D. In Rus'.

574. In ancient centuries, credit operations were mainly ... in nature.

A. Usury.

B. Innovative.

C. Stock.

D. Consumer.

575. Argentarii in Ancient Rome created..., whose activities laid the foundations of monetary entrepreneurship.

A. Corporations.

B. Cooperations.

C. Federations.

D. Associations.

576. Trading houses of Ancient Babylon issued loans under:

A. Pledge of goods that are in demand on the market.

B. Mortgage of real estate.

C. Guarantees.

D. Letters of guarantee.

577. With the advent of credit money, banks begin to carry out... operations.

A. Cash.

B. Estimated.

C. Collateral.

D. Emission.

578. In Russia, banking has been around since the early 80s. XIX century developed mainly on the basis of... banks.

A. State.

B. Private.

C. Shareholders.

D. Foreign.

579. The persons who received and issued money in the state treasury of Ancient Greece were called:

A. Cashiers.

B. Naukrariyami.

C. Money changers.

D. Endorsers.

580. In the practice of the State Bank of the Russian Empire, operations carried out by:

A. Based on the results of the analysis of its activities.

B. Based on the order of the Minister of Economy or his deputy.

C. According to a special report from the Minister of Finance and with the permission of the Emperor.

D. Based on an assessment of the creditworthiness of its customers.

561-C	562-D	564-A	565-B	566-C	567-B	568-B	569-C	570-A	571-C
572-C	573-A	574-A	575-D	576-A	577-D	578-A	579-B	580-C

2. Answers to test tasks for the sequence 563-D-C-A-B

The emergence and development of banks

561. The first monetary transactions carried out by temples were:

A. Accounting.

B. Estimated.

C. Safe.

D. Exchange.

562. In England during the 17th-19th centuries. Banks operated mainly as:

A. Open joint stock companies.

B. Unitary institutions.

C. Closed joint stock companies.

D . Limited liability companies.

Indicate the sequence in which temples master basic monetary transactions.

A. Estimated.

B. Exchange.

C. Accounting.

D. Safe.

564. The role of temples was determined by the fact that they were:

A. Insurance Fund of Communities and States.

B. Charitable organizations.

C. State Pension Fund.

D. Government agencies.

565. The concentration of monetary reserves in the Ancient East became possible due to the presence of:

A. Coin offices.

B. Trading houses.

C. Commercial enterprises.

D. Commercial banks.

566. In Ancient Greece at the end of the 5th century. BC. trapezites were people who:

A. We were engaged in the business of money changers.

B. Issued small loans against collateral.

C. Accepted deposits and made payments on account of the client
ents.

D. Provided commercial credit.

567. In the state apparatus of Ancient Greece, the correctness of monetary transactions was assessed:

A. Treasurers.

B. Logisticians.

C. Patricia.

D . Moneylenders.

Interest in Russian history began to arise approximately after the end of the Time of Troubles, when order was established in the state for many years. At that time, archeology did not yet exist, and ancient treasures were found exclusively by farmers and builders. Based on scant information and mythological ideas, a picture emerged of very backward times of the pre-Mongol period, when only natural exchange existed. By the middle of the 17th century, it was suggested that pieces of leather were used as money in Ancient Rus', after which this guess was enshrined in the chronicle without any confirmation.

The idea of ​​leather money did not arise out of nowhere. The genealogy of the Russian tsars at that time was traced back to Ancient Rome, since it was believed that it was there that royal power first arose and all the world dynasties were successors of the Roman ones. While studying Byzantine chronicles, Russian researchers came across information about leather money in antiquity, which was supported by other information from European history. The beautiful theory quickly overshadowed its reliability. Given the level of development of science in the 17th century in the Russian state, it could not have been any other way.

(from the book by I.G. Spassky)

In Peter's time, collecting coins became a prestigious occupation for the Russian nobility, although, as a rule, it did not have any scientific significance. Beautiful coins and medals (mostly European) were placed in cabinets made of expensive wood and shown to guests as treasures. Antique medallions with images of Roman emperors were especially popular.

During the reign of Catherine II, science began to develop rapidly, and many scientists appeared who expressed their points of view. All this had to be combined, so a lot of things didn’t fit together. For example, it has already become known about treasures of foreign coins found everywhere. But the theory about leather money was the main one and lasted until the middle of the 19th century.

The first to completely reject the use of exclusively animal skins as a means of payment in Ancient Rus' was F.I. Krug, who published several notes on numismatics in 1805. He argued that in the 10th-11th centuries there were already coins, and quite possibly even of their own minting (this was later proven). However, widespread finds of pieces of leather with images embossed on them confirmed the dominant theory of “leather banknotes” (as they were then called). These finds are now generally attributed to the second half of the 17th century. Probably there really was a circulation of leather money, but in a limited area during the period of transformations of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, who tried to replace silver with copper.

In the 13th century, the European traveler Rubruk wrote notes in which he mentioned the multi-colored skins of southern Rus'. An incorrect translation suggested that these were stamped pieces of leather, which, like the banknotes of the late 18th century, were multi-colored. Later, in the writings of another traveler Guilbert de Lannoy, references were found to the monetary circulation of Novgorod and Pskov at the beginning of the 15th century, where marten heads were allegedly used instead of money.

XVIII-XIX centuries - a time of great historical discoveries that affected not only Europe, but also Russia. The deciphering of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs prompted the search for written sources of Russian history. “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, “The Tale of Bygone Years” and others were studied. Byzantine, European, Tatar and Arabic texts, which contained an impressive amount of information on Russian history, were actively translated. It turned out that Ancient Rus' was not a backward state formation; it had its own laws and orders. The chronicles contained information about the beginning of the minting of Russian coins under Prince Vladimir, and the names of money in Ancient Rus' became known (kuna, nogata, mortka, polushka, hryvnia, veksha). At first they tried to compare these names with parts of the skins. It is likely that they have a similar origin, but already in the Mongol period they were used to indicate coin denominations.

(from the Hermitage exhibition)

Studying ancient Russian sources is a very difficult task. The epics and legends in them are supplemented by real events, and it becomes impossible to reveal the truth without relying on archeology. Translation of poorly preserved foreign texts, especially Arabic ones, does not lead to a unified interpretation. It was the discovery of treasures that began to support numismatics with new discoveries. By the 20th century, the picture more or less began to emerge. Through the works of such scientists as A.V. Oreshnikov, managed to compile the first catalogs of Russian coins, which are still used by numismatists.

Foreign coins in Ancient Rus'

Undoubtedly, the skins of small fur-bearing animals have long been one of the main types of monetary substitutes. In the dense forests there were many squirrels, martens, and sables, whose fur was highly valued in other countries, which made it possible to carry out profitable trade. An equally famous substitute for money were small cowrie shells (the scientific name for this mollusk is cypreya). Shells came to Rus' from southern countries and were highly valued due to their ease of use. For example, for storage and transportation they were often strung on a thread; such “necklaces” could be used to pay for large purchases. But still, finds of skins and shells do not come across so often. The basis of all treasures dating from the pre-Mongol period are foreign silver coins.

The most ancient Russian treasures date back to the 8th century. That is, 100 years before the formation of statehood, money was already actively used. A treasure typical of the pre-Petrine era is a clay jug filled with silver coins mixed with furs and other valuables. There are also completely coin treasures. It is not uncommon to find smaller treasures in which coins are wrapped in cloth or a piece of leather. The vessels or wrapping are no less important for historians than the contents themselves, since they allow more accurate dating of the find. It is also important where and how the treasure was buried, near what settlements and historical sites.

(from the Hermitage exhibition)

It was silver that was the basis of the monetary account; initially money was called “silver”. Gold coins also found their way to Rus', but they were valued much lower than in other states, and therefore they did not stay long. The approximate rate of gold to silver was 10:1, and remained approximately the same until the end of the 17th century. Other metals, such as copper, were not perceived as a means of storage at all. Copper coins appeared in northeastern Rus' only in the 14th century and existed before the unification of Russian lands.

Most often in early hoards there are coins of the Arab Caliphate - dirhams. These are thin circles of silver with a diameter of approximately 3 cm, covered with Arabic inscriptions. Such writing in Rus' was called “Kufi”, so the coins were universally called Kufic. After the collapse of the Arab Caliphate, coins from new state formations began to arrive in Rus'.

Analyzing the frequency of occurrence of treasures, we can draw a conclusion about the organization of trade in Rus'. Eastern coins ended up in Volga Bulgaria, with which Rus' had close contacts; it was from there that silver penetrated into the Russian principalities in exchange for furs, grain, blacksmith and pottery products. Then the coins went to the southwestern outskirts (Polotsk, Chernigov, Kyiv, Galich Volynsky, Pereyaslavl), from where they went to Europe.

In addition to the city of Bolgar, the capital of Volga Bulgaria, Rus' actively traded with the Khazar Khaganate, located in the Caspian and Black Sea steppes. In the main centers of trade, treasures were found with imitations of Arab coins, the inscriptions on which were unreadable. The Slavs, unfamiliar with the Arabic script, accepted such coins as genuine, although authenticity was of secondary importance, since the coin was valued by the amount of silver in it. The largest treasure of such imitations was found in 1930 in the Kharkov region near the village of Bezlyudovka. The most common version of the coinage of imitations is the periodic reduction in the weight of Arab coins, so for settlements with the Slavs it was necessary to make coins of the same weight.

Some tribes, especially the peoples of the Volga region, used coins to decorate clothing. To do this, a hole was made in each coin and sewn with thread. Later these coins could be used again as a means of payment. Considering that individual coins have been in circulation for tens and even hundreds of years, holes gradually appeared on almost half of the dirhams.

The inscriptions had no meaning; they even used coins with completely erased inscriptions. However, weight and fineness were easily determined by ancient merchants with amazing accuracy; one can only guess what tools they used for this. In treasures there are sometimes weighing weights and something similar to cup scales. Research shows that merchants took coins not by weight, but by quantity. This is also facilitated by the common names of monetary units. In this case, the scales served only to determine the quality of coins in a large batch, their average sample was calculated, and only then the required quantity was counted out.

For archaeologists, the inscriptions on Kufic coins are very important; they allow approximately dating treasures according to the specified year of issue (according to the lunar calendar - Hijri). For example, if in a treasure of 3 thousand coins 2,500 are with dates within two decades, then the treasure can be dated to this time. The names of the rulers, who can be compared with a particular dynasty and state formation, make a lot of sense. The coins of the Umayyads and Abassids are most often found; these dynasties were the main ones in the Arab Caliphate, but after its collapse, shorter dynasties were formed.

Very rarely among Russian finds are Iranian coins of the 4th-7th centuries of the Sassanid dynasty, distinguished by a portrait of the king (with the advent of the Islamic religion, all images were banned). On the territory of the former Bulgaria, these finds are less rare, which allows us to draw an interesting conclusion: the coins got there long before the connection between Bulgaria and Russia was established, and then penetrated into Russian cities.

After the Seljuk Turks conquered Baghdad in the middle of the 11th century, the minting of silver coins began to cease, which gave way to gold and copper coins. This was also facilitated by the depletion of the silver mines of the Caliphate. As mentioned above, gold and copper were reluctantly accepted by Russian merchants, so the influx of oriental coins began to weaken. This happened even earlier in the southern and western regions. On the territory of modern Ukraine in the 10th century, Byzantine coins were already actively circulating, and on the territory of Belarus, European denarii. Gradually they replaced dirhams and became the basis of monetary circulation before the Golden Horde invasion.

European denarii are not the same as the euro in the modern world. Despite the similar name, the coins were very different in design and inscriptions. Western European ones are distinguished by their Gothic design - the image of a cross is clearly visible on them. The coins of different countries were similar in weight and shape; they look more familiar to us than dirhams, reminiscent of 5 kopecks from 1997: thick and with a small diameter.

In addition to denarii, in the treasures of Ancient Rus' there are other silver coins - bracteates. They are close in weight to dirhams, but the diameter is larger and so thin that the images are pressed onto the reverse side. Such a coin could easily be torn by hand. Bracteates were minted in Saxony, a state formation in the north of modern Germany that existed until the end of the 12th century.

(from the Hermitage exhibition)

Close ties with the powerful Byzantium could not but affect monetary circulation. The minting of coins in this state was limited, mainly gold solidi were produced (which also had the names “nomisma”, “iperper”, “milia-rissia” and others). They affected mainly the territory of southern Rus' with the center in Kyiv. It was on the model of these coins that they began to mint their own zlatniks and silver coins during the reign of Vladimir the Great.

(from the Hermitage exhibition)

Archaeologists even find ancient coins in ancient Russian treasures and settlements, including Greek tetradrachms, Roman sesterces, etc. There are also gold medallions. The variety of shapes and sizes suggests that they were unlikely to be used as money, but rather as a form of exchange. Moreover, they could have entered the territory of Ancient Rus' long before the unification of the Slavic tribes, settled in treasures, and then began to be used again. It is even more likely that these coin-shaped items were in Europe or in the east for many centuries, and then came to Rus'.

Russian names of money

Slavic women often wore necklaces made of coins; this was convenient for protection against theft. Such necklaces were called hryvnias (neck in Old Slavonic - mane). Sometimes the coins were melted down and made into neck jewelry, but the name was retained. On average, the “hryvnia” included 25 coins, so this amount was gradually fixed in the monetary account as “hryvnia kun”. Kuna is a typical dirham for that time, probably comes from the word “marten”, that is, the fur of a small animal. It is believed that one dirham was given for one marten skin. But there is another version: the word “kuna” could come from the Latin “coin” - “coin”.

(from the Hermitage exhibition)

For a long time it was believed that the word “nogata” meant a skin with legs and a head, but now another version is accepted: “naghd” in Arabic meant a full-weight coin. It is difficult to say which coin was considered full-weight, perhaps this word is of later origin, when light European coins began to appear in Rus', replacing kunas. One chronicle preserves information about price ratios, which, surprisingly, were almost the same in all principalities. They gave 5 nogat for a fox, or 40 kuna without nogata for 3 foxes. This means that 40 kunas were equal to 16 nogatas, or 2.5 kunas per nogata.

Very often, whole coins are accompanied by their trimmings. Moreover, it has not yet been revealed exactly how they participated in the conversion. Probably the trimmings supplemented the mass of money in the absence of its exact weight. In the chronicles, when describing a cash account, the word “veksha” is found; perhaps it was used to refer to parts of the kun. Sometimes you can find information about the number of veksha close to 100, which had an equivalent price to the kuna. The word "polushka" became widespread later, but apparently originally meant half a dirham. The word “rezana” could mean both halves of coins and smaller parts. What “veveritsa” is has not yet been established; perhaps this word is not associated with money at all, although it is found when denoting an account. According to some sources, “Veveritsa” and “Veksha” are one and the same.

Gold coins and silver coins

After the adoption of the Byzantine religion - Christianity - in 988, Prince Vladimir the Great, in order to further strengthen ties with Byzantium and increase the prestige of Rus', began minting the first Russian coins. They received the names “srebreniks” (from the word “serebro” - silver, money) and “zlatniki” (from the word “zlato” - gold). The mint was located in Kyiv.

“Srebreniks” were made in the likeness of Byzantine solidi, but of a larger size (approximately like dirhams that were already outgoing at that time). Their weight was in the range of 3-3.5 grams, on the front side they depicted a prince on a throne with a trident in his hand - a symbol of princely power. At first there was Christ on the reverse side, and later a large trident appeared, made in every detail. The inscription read: “Vladimir is on the table, and this is his silver” (that is, “Vladimir is on the throne, and this is his money”). The circles for minting were cut from a sheet of silver and almost always had an imperfect shape.

Apparently, the piece of silver began to be called nogata, as a more valuable high-quality coin, in contrast to small denarii - kun. Perhaps the pieces of silver did not participate in circulation at all, or were used extremely limitedly, this is confirmed by a small number of finds. In total, about 400 pieces of silver are known. Their minting ceased under Yaroslav the Wise; for two centuries later, coins were not minted in Rus' at all, and production was revived only under Dmitry Donskoy.

Zlatnik of Vladimir (from the Hermitage exhibition)

Zlatniks generally constitute isolated finds. They were minted only under Vladimir the Great and repeated the Byzantine solidi, only with the image of the Russian prince and Russian inscriptions: “Vladimir is on the table, and behold his gold.” On the reverse side was an image of Christ.

Zlatniki of Vladimir are known in two versions: with the tops of the letters facing outward, and the tops facing the center. Vladimir's silver pieces are divided into 4 types: 1 – image of Christ on the reverse side;
2 – bust image of the prince, on the back – a trident;
3 – the prince sits on the throne, on the back there is a trident;
4 – the prince is standing, on the back is a trident.

Collectors know the rarest pieces of silver dating back to the reign of Prince Oleg-Mikhail (before baptism - Oleg, then Mikhail) in the territory of Tmutarakan (1083-1094). This small principality was located on the Taman Peninsula near the Azov and Black Seas and belonged to Rus' from 965 to the end of the 11th century. Power over these lands was established after the defeat of the Khazar Kaganate by Svyatoslav Igorevich, and later they went to Byzantium. According to another version, the coins may belong to the reign of Mstislav the Udal (988-1036).

Coinless period

In "Russian Truth" - the first set of laws of Ancient Rus', created by Yaroslav the Wise, there is a list of punishments for various crimes. Most of them are monetary fines expressed in hryvnias. It was then, in the 11th century in Kyiv, that the hryvnia began to gradually transform from a unit of account into a silver ingot of a certain weight. Much later, hryvnia bars appeared in other political centers - Novgorod, Pskov, Polotsk, Chernigov. All of them differed significantly from each other, since the onset of feudal fragmentation led to the isolated development of individual territories.

After the end of the influx of dirhams from eastern countries, coins began to completely disappear from circulation in some territories (mostly in the south). In any case, there are no finds dating back to a sufficiently long period. European denarii for some time supplied the center, the Volga region and the north-west, but their circulation from the 12th-13th centuries. began to fade. Historians called this period coinless, although it does not have clearly defined temporal and territorial boundaries. For example, in Kyiv and many southern Russian principalities, the coinless period lasted from the 11th century until Ukraine joined the Principality of Lithuania in the 13th century. In Novgorod it began only in the second half of the 12th century and ended after about 200 years. Research is hampered by the scanty finds of treasures, which are filled mainly with silver ingots, which are difficult to date.

It is believed that the appearance of bullion is associated with the deposition of large amounts of coins from the rich strata of society. The population most likely returned to natural exchange and money substitutes (cowrie shells, furs). Because they were no longer needed, coins began to be melted down into ingots that were more convenient for storage; they were used for large-scale settlements. Another version is increased pressure from the Mongol conquerors. Although in this case it is not clear why in the south the coinless period began 150 years before the Mongol invasion. Of course, many hryvnia ingots could have gone as tribute to the Tatar-Mongols; perhaps they were used to make “Volga hryvnias” dating back to the 14th century. In any case, the main factor was the division of Rus' into independent principalities, significantly isolated from each other, which led to a decrease in the influence of trade.

At the same time, for still unknown reasons, the weight of the counting hryvnia kun sharply increases from approximately 75-80 grams in the 10th century to 160 in the 11th century. A clear weight standard emerged, called by numismatists “Kyiv hryvnia” or “southern hryvnia”, since bars of this weight are found on the territory of the former southern principalities. These hryvnias had a diamond shape, but with slightly rounded edges inward and flattened at the long ends. One part of the ingot was flat, and the other was convex and porous due to the entry of air during casting.

(from the Hermitage exhibition)

Novgorod ingots are completely different from Kyiv ones. Treasures with them are found throughout the vast territory of the Novgorod Republic, as well as in the Tver and Pskov principalities. They have the shape of smooth sticks, flattened on one side. The weight is also very different and is within 200 grams.

In the western regions (most often in Belarus) treasures are found with silver sticks similar to those from Novgorod, but less regular in shape and weighing like those from Kyiv - 160-170 grams. Due to the proximity of the Principality of Lithuania, they were called “Lithuanian”, but you can often find the phrase “Western Russian hryvnia”, which is more correct. In the vicinity of Chernigov there are rare finds of hexagonal 200-gram ingots, strongly flattened with a hammer. And in the Volga region, so-called “boat-shaped” hryvnias weighing about 200 grams were produced. The rook shape of the ingot was obtained due to the rocking of the form during the solidification of the silver. Like the Kyiv ones, they have a porous structure at the bottom and a smooth top.

In later southern treasures, thickened hexagonal ingots weighing as much as those from Novgorod are found, which indicates the resumption of trade relations between Novgorod and Kyiv. Probably, the flattened Chernigov hryvnias were made from them. There are other versions, for example, that all Chernigov hryvnias are the result of the melting down of precious vessels in 1288 on the orders of the Volyn prince Vladimir Vasilkovich.

The Hermitage houses a gold bar weighing 94 grams, found in 1903 on the territory of Belarus. It is difficult to say whether it was a means of payment. It is possible that this was the raw material that came to Rus' for the production of European gold solids. Historians estimate the exchange rate of gold to silver at that time to be approximately 12:1 (according to some sources 10:1), it turns out that the ingot was equal to 5 Novgorod hryvnia.

At the end of the 13th century, the silver standard of Novgorod bullion decreased. They began to produce ingots thickened in the center, fusing additional silver to return them to their usual value. Apparently, merchants refused to accept hryvnias, which contained only 170 g of pure silver, so they had to increase the volume of pure silver. Among numismatists, such hryvnias are called “humpbacked”. It is possible that low-quality silver was imported with the aim of disrupting the economic system of Novgorod. At this time, trade again began to move from natural exchange to monetary exchange, and for small payments the hryvnia was cut into pieces, receiving half rubles, quarters, etc. The name of a new type of hryvnia – “ruble” – comes from the word “cut”. Fifties, as well as the rubles themselves, were often branded. In the later hoards of the non-coin period, almost all specimens are stamped, and there are significantly fewer whole hryvnias.

With the flourishing of trade, the counting concept of “hryvnia” is changing once again. Now they began to call it a tenth of the ruble. This concept has been entrenched for many centuries, and to this day some people call the 10-kopeck coin a “kopeck piece.” With the revival of coinage in the 14th-15th centuries, ingots disappeared, giving way again to coins.

1. I.G.Spassky. "Russian monetary system".

2. A.V. Oreshnikov. "Russian coins before 1547".

Photos provided by site users: Admin, Sergey32

MONETARY SYSTEM OF ANCIENT Rus', the oldest money in Russia was called kuns. The name “money” is Tatar; it came into use in Rus' only during the Tatar-Mongol yoke. Therefore, we will not find the word “money” in any of the most ancient monuments: the word “kun” is used in this meaning (in the ancient translation of the Gospel it is “kun lovers,” i.e., lovers of money). The name of the tokens of value kunami comes from the fact that at that time the skins of various animals, mainly the skins of martens, were usually exchange goods in Rus'.

The hryvnia was considered the highest monetary unit at that time. Hryvnia were oblong silver bars, slightly longer than a finger and two fingers wide. Only the later hryvnias have reached us, already somewhat modified and related to rubles, that is, to hryvnias cut, chopped; Of the real hryvnias, no more than two copies have reached us. But the marks of princely cities were usually placed on the hryvnias. Actually, the hryvnia meant the weight of metal, gold or silver, and was almost equal to the future pound. At the same time, it meant a coin and was equal to the Greek liter, which weighed 72 spools, or 68 spools of the ancient weight. There were two types of hryvnia - silver hryvnia and kun hryvnia. The former were related to the latter as 1:4. However, the ratio between them was like 1:7 or even 1:7.5. Consequently, at the beginning the relationship between hryvnias was different, and it changed later. In addition, the same charter defines the ratio of hryvnia of gold to hryvnia of kun: namely, gold hryvnia = 50 hryvnia of kun. However, most likely the hryvnia of gold was not an exchange unit, but directly meant only the weight of gold, while the hryvnia of silver was a current coin. The Volyn Chronicle provides us with proof of this. It says under 1288 that when Vladimir Vsevolodovich, dying, decided to distribute his property to the poor, he ordered his silver dishes and vessels to be broken and converted into hryvnia. On the contrary, the hryvnia kun meant not a weight, but only an account, like the current English pounds sterling.

The hryvnias were followed by kunas and rezanis, which were usually divided into hryvnias, just as our rubles were divided into hryvnias and kopecks. The attitude of the kun to the hryvnia was twofold: until the 12th century. the hryvnia contained 25 kunas, and from the 12th century. it already consisted of 50 kunas. As far as can be judged from the treasures that have come down to us (the Nezhinsky treasure is especially remarkable in this regard, which contained many different coins dating back to the 12th and even 11th centuries, to the time of Vladimir Monomakh, Svyatopolk-Mikhail, Izyaslav and Yuri Dolgoruky), kunami they called coins the size of our fifty dollars, only somewhat thinner. They consisted of an alloy of several non-valuable metals. Rezanya was the 50th share of a hryvnia. This coin appeared in the Dnieper region only in the 12th century. and probably replaced the kuna, the value of which, as we said, had already changed at that time and it was no longer the 25th part of the hryvnia, but the 50th.

After the kunas and cuts, there were still nogat in the cash account. They referred to rezani, or kuna of the 12th century, as 1:2.5. Consequently, there were 20 nogat in the hryvnia. Beli, or squirrel, according to the then account, was the 8th share of a nogata or the 160th share of a hryvnia. The smallest coin unit was the so-called. veksha, or veritsa; there were 18 of them in the kuna, and 900 in the hryvnia. All this was nothing more than transferring the value of the skins of various animals onto a coin; Thus, kuna expressed the value of marten fur, nogat - an animal unknown to us, probably sable, squirrel expressed the value of ermine fur, and veksha - the value of squirrel fur.

It should be noted that Novgorod money was almost twice as heavy as the grassroots money. Therefore, when encountering an indication of a particular coin in any of the Novgorod monuments, it is necessary to distinguish according to what account it is used in this case, according to Novgorod or lower. So, for example, in the Novgorod hryvnia, silver was considered not 4, but 7.5 hryvnia kun, as was established by Vladimir Svyatoslavich. Obviously, in Novgorod longer than in other places of Rus', the old relations of monetary units were maintained.