Belief and culture of the peoples of Siberia. Cultural development of Siberia in the era of Catherine II Khait Nadezhda Leonidovna Cultural revolution in Siberia

01.07.2020

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Introduction

Today, when the country is undergoing an active process of the formation of Russian statehood and an orientation towards the subjects of the federation, in these conditions there is an increasing need for the local population and especially young people to know well their land, its history, economy, geography, labor and cultural traditions, ethnography, ethnopedagogy. , ethnopsychology of the peoples living in it, the ecology of nature and culture.

The famous Siberian ethnographer G. Vinogradov wrote that Siberia is a living giant ethnographic museum. As people go to Greece and Italy to study antiquity, so they should go to Siberia to study ethnography. He rightly posed the question: "... can the secondary education of a Siberian be considered complete without knowledge of the material and spiritual culture of such ethnic groups of Siberia as the Buryats, Yakuts, Mongols, Ostyaks, Samoyeds, Tungus, Kalmyks, Kyrgyz, Altai, Tatars and the entire category of Paleoasians?" Today it is necessary to raise this question in a different way: can the higher education of a Siberian be considered complete, not to mention the representatives of these peoples? Of course, these questions should only be answered in the negative. The purpose of this work is to analyze the folk traditions of Siberia, its peoples, as well as the upbringing of children.

Consider the spiritual culture of the population of Siberia;

To analyze folk pedagogy and upbringing of children by the indigenous peoples of Siberia.

Spiritual culture of the people of Siberia

The newcomer population with its own culture, established way of life fell into a new socio-cultural space. It was necessary to adapt to new conditions, to master local traditions, to accept the originality of the material and spiritual culture of the indigenous inhabitants of Siberia. In turn, the newcomers influenced the life and social life of the aborigines. Thus, certain socio-economic social relations developed in Siberia, which were the result of the translation of the Russian way of life on the local soil; a special Siberian folk culture began to form as a variant of the national Russian culture, which showed the unity of the general and the particular. The formation of Siberian culture took place on the basis of feudal socio-economic relations that were taking shape in the vast region. The results of this process, in turn, influenced the appearance and level of development of Siberian society. The process of cultural adaptation had, and was common for all Siberians, and manifested itself in a special way for each social stratum.

Intercultural interaction has affected the tools of labor. The alien population borrowed a lot from the natives from hunting and fishing tools, and the natives, in turn, began to widely use the tools of agricultural labor. Borrowings from both sides to varying degrees manifested themselves in the dwellings under construction, in outbuildings, in household items and clothing. For example, in the lower reaches of the Irtysh and Ob rivers, Russian residents borrowed from the Nenets and Khanty malitsa, parkas, shoes made of reindeer fur, and much more. The mutual influence of different cultures also took place in the spiritual sphere, to a lesser extent - in the early stages of the development of Siberia, to a much greater extent - since the 18th century. It is, in particular, about the assimilation of certain phenomena of religiosity of the indigenous population by newcomers, on the one hand, and about the Christianization of the aborigines, on the other. There is a great similarity of the Cossack life with the life of the indigenous population. And everyday relations very close to the Cossacks with the natives, in particular, with the Yakuts. Cossacks and Yakuts trusted and helped each other. The Yakuts willingly lent their kayaks to the Cossacks, helped them in hunting and fishing. When the Cossacks had to go away for a long period on business, they handed over their livestock to their Yakut neighbors for keeping. Many local residents who converted to Christianity themselves became service people, they developed common interests with Russian settlers, and a close way of life was formed.

Mixed marriages of newcomers with natives, both baptized and those who remained in paganism, became widespread. It should be borne in mind that the church viewed this practice with great disapproval. In the first half of the 17th century, the clerical authorities expressed concern that Russian people "will mix with Tatar and Ostyak and Vogul nasty wives ... while others live with unbaptized Tatars as they are with their wives and take on their children." Local culture, as already mentioned, undoubtedly influenced the culture of Russians. But the influence of Russian culture on the native one was much stronger. And this is quite natural: the transition of a number of indigenous ethnic groups from hunting, fishing and other primitive trades to agriculture meant not only an increase in the level of technological equipment of labor, but also advancement to a more developed culture. Of course, the process of mutual influence of cultures was complicated. The tsarist regime with its colonial policy to a certain extent restrained the cultural development of the Siberian population, both newcomers and aboriginal. But the peculiarities of the social structure that existed in Siberia: the absence of landowners' land ownership, the restriction of monastic claims to the exploitation of the peasantry, the influx of political exiles, the settlement of the region by enterprising people - stimulated its cultural development. The culture of the aborigines was enriched by the Russian national culture. The literacy of the population increased, albeit with great difficulties. In the 17th century, literate people in Siberia were mainly clergy. However, there were literate people among the Cossacks, tradesmen, traders and even peasants. With all the limited cultural development in Siberia, the foundation was laid for the further spiritual enrichment of its inhabitants, which began to manifest itself more fully from the next, XVIII century.

Engaged in agriculture, peasants in different regions of Siberia changed the traditional Russian agricultural technology, taking into account the condition of the soil, climate, local traditions, and the accumulated experience of the development of nature. Somewhere a wooden plow was used, and there were its regional varieties, in other cases improvements were made to the plow, it approached the plow, and the plow, as you know, is a more productive tool than the plow. Purely local agricultural implements were also used. The same can be said about the dwelling: buildings in Western and Eastern Siberia, in the northern and southern regions had their own specifics. On the outskirts of Siberia, in the Far East and especially in the lower reaches of the Kolyma, the temporary dwellings of the Russians on the settlements differed little from the huts of the aborigines.

In construction, all available tree species were used, while preference, if possible, was given to a condo forest (pine or spruce). The windows were mostly covered with mica. Glass began to be produced in Siberia since the 60s of the 18th century, and was also imported from the Urals. The housing construction technique was borrowed from the experience gained in European Russia. Houses were cut, as a rule, from two "cages" connected to each other. At first, dwellings were built without decorations, and then they began to decorate platbands, cornices, wickets, gates and other elements of the house. Over time, the dwelling became more harmonious, comfortable for living. In different regions of Siberia, there were covered yards, which was very convenient for the owners. The houses of Siberian old-timers were kept clean and tidy, which testifies to the rather high everyday culture of this category of settlers.

Many immigrants wore both traditional Russian outerwear and local ones, for example, the national Buryat “ergach”. In Kolyma, underwear and outerwear made of reindeer fur were very popular among the settlers.

Until the beginning of the 18th century, there were no schools in Siberia, children and youth were taught by private teachers. But they were few, their sphere of influence is limited. Some of the wisdom of education comprehended "self-taught", as, for example, Semyon Ulyanovich Remezov. This man remained in the memory of Siberians as an outstanding cultural figure. He owns a work on the history of Siberia - the Remezov Chronicle. The peculiarity of this chronicle is the use of elements of a scientific approach. Remezov also compiled the "Drawing Book of Siberia" - a geographic atlas of 23 maps.

According to the tsar's decree of January 9, 1701, a nobleman Andrei Ivanovich Gorodetsky was sent to Tobolsk as a "clerk and clerk" to the Sofia Metropolitan House. He was ordered "to establish and expand the words of God in the Sofia courtyard, or where it is appropriate, by building a school", to teach the children of the ministers of the church "reading and writing, and then verbal grammar and other books in the Slovenian language."

In the 19th century, the influence of Russian culture on the lifestyle of the Siberian aborigines continued. True, this influence in the far southeast and northeast was much weaker than in Western Siberia, which was due not only to large distances, but also to the formal nature of the influence. This applies, in particular, to the spread of Christianity. The result of missionary activity was very often not monoreligion, but dual faith. Christianity bizarrely combined with paganism. Thus, the Buryats, adopting Christianity, preserved their shamanistic beliefs and rituals. Difficulties in introducing the natives to the Christian faith were associated with the fact that the natives themselves opposed this, and the missionaries treated their task quite normally.

Certain results were achieved in the development of education among the peoples of Siberia in the 19th century. Thus, the Altaians acquired a written language. In 1868, the primer was published, and then the grammar of the Altai language. The prerequisites for the formation of Altai literature were taking shape.

The school reform carried out in 1803-1804 had a positive impact on the education system in Siberia. In accordance with its guidelines, Russia was divided into six educational districts, Siberia became part of the Kazan district, the intellectual center of which was Kazan University. At the same time, in order to prevent free thought, educational institutions were placed under the supervision of governors-general. And in those days, as now, funding for education was carried out according to the "residual principle." In 1831, 0.7 percent of the expenditure part of the budgets of elite West Siberian gymnasiums was allocated for the public education of Siberia, and by 1851 this share had reached 1.7 percent, but this was quite a bit. The situation was especially bad with the development of education among the indigenous peoples, and first of all among the inhabitants of the Far North. The need for education was enormous, but the opportunities to receive it were limited, the education policy was ill-considered. Better than that of other aborigines, the situation was with education among the Buryats: as early as 1804, the Balagan Buryat small public school was created. But his fate turned out to be difficult, and soon it was closed. Roughly the same situation was observed in other indigenous territories. There was a shortage of trained teaching staff.

Back in the 19th century, the formation of higher education began in Siberia. A university and a technological institute were opened in Tomsk, then the time came for the Oriental Institute in Vladivostok (in connection with the outbreak of the Russian-Japanese war, the latter was temporarily transferred to Verkhneudinsk). An outstanding Russian scientist D.I. Mendeleev. He was a member of the commission for organizing Tomsk University as a full-fledged university, not only having a humanitarian profile, but also including a physics and mathematics faculty and an engineering department. However, D.I. Mendeleev were not implemented at that time. Later he was a member of the commission for the establishment of the Tomsk Technological Institute, which was supposed to include two departments: mechanical and chemical-technological. The project on the establishment of the Institute of Technology was approved on March 14, 1896 by the State Council, and in April of the same year signed by Nikolai P. Great help was provided by D.I. Mendeleev in expanding this institute, in creating two more departments in it: mining and engineering construction. The merits of D.I. Mendeleev in the development of Siberian higher education were highly appreciated and officially recognized. In 1904, by the decision of the Academic Councils, he was recognized as an honorary member, first of the Tomsk Technological Institute, and then of the Tomsk University. DI. Mendeleev took care of the multifaceted development of both spiritual and material culture of Siberia. He owned a project for the development of the productive forces of Siberia by using Ural ores and Kuznetsk coal in the production. This project was implemented after 1917. Initially, the students of Tomsk University were mainly graduates of theological seminaries. But among his students there were also people from the families of the bureaucratic elite, commoners, merchants and other strata of society. The university exerted an increasing ideological and educational influence on a huge region.

Introduction

Chapter I. Conditions of cultural development in Siberia during the reign of Catherine II 24

1. Government Cultural Policy 24

2. Siberian cities as centers of cultural development 31

3. The role of the church in the cultural life of the Siberian population 49

Chapter II. Changes in the content of culture in the era of Catherine II 71

1. Transformation of the education system 71

2. Cultural and leisure activities of the Siberian population 91

3. Traditional rituals and holiday entertainment of Siberians 116

Conclusion 124

Notes 128

Sources and literature 145

Appendix 157

Introduction to work

The urgency of the problem

Culture is a qualitative characteristic of society. At present, interest in the history of cultural development has increased significantly, ltura is recognized as one of the important regulators of social life, as well as a necessary condition for the development of an individual as a subject of versatile social activity.

The relevance of this topic is also explained by the vital importance of the implementation of cultural ties for the full existence of any national culture. Historical experience shows that no culture is limited by its own roots, but perceives and uses what is needed from other cultures. The perception of global spiritual values is a natural and objective process caused by the need of every nation to go beyond the limits of its own culture, which is necessary for its further successful development.

Based on the recognition of the importance of culture for social development and its special peacemaking role in the era of globalization, in the second half

1990s UNESCO identified the most important areas of research, one of which was the vitality (vitality) of culture. It is measured by indicators such as literacy, content of folk arts and crafts, preservation of cultural heritage, access to and participation of the population in cultural activities.

The cultural development of the era of enlightened absolutism is a complex multifaceted process, the "first impetus" to which were the Peter's reforms. These reforms brought both the country itself and its culture from the era of antiquity and the Middle Ages to a new level. 1 The Age of Enlightenment is an important period in the development of Russian culture, which meant a gradual transformation of traditional culture into the culture of modern times. The policy of enlightened absolutism, characteristic of a number of European states in the second half of the 18th century. - this is not only the transformation of outdated social institutions, the abolition of the estate privileges of the clergy, "an alliance of sovereigns with philosophers" 2, but also the development of the cultural sphere, education, patronage of the arts and sciences. This policy was officially proclaimed in 1762 by Catherine II.

At this time, the processes that began under Peter the Great continued especially intensively: the "secularization" of culture - its separation from faith, confrontational tendencies between the enlightened liberal The "minority" (cultural elite) and conservative the majority (unenlightened masses), and as a result - a gap between the culture of the enlightened nobility, gravitating towards European civilization, and the folk culture of the vast majority of the population. Russian culture of Siberia in the second half of the 18th century. was influenced by the educational processes taking place in the country. It is divided into a religious and secular layer, and the removal in the XVIII century. the church from the influence on politics and the educational system in the state contributed to the further advancement of secular culture to the fore. Therefore, the culture of Siberia

the era of enlightened absolutism of Catherine II should be viewed as a process of coexistence of two spheres - secular and spiritual.

The picture of the cultural development of Siberia cannot be complete without the concept of “province”. According to the definition of the dictionary of S. Ozhegov, the term "provincial" means a non-capital space of life, culture. The second meaning includes an evaluative negative meaning: backward, naive, rustic. "To this meaning is added a political myth about the secondary (second-rate) of everything provincial, including in cultural traditions, in cultural heritage, in the existing hierarchy of assessments of the activities of representatives of the provincial intelligentsia.

In our case, all these accents are taken into account, but the methodological priority is given to the geographical meaning - distance from the center of the country. A province is understood as a designation of a regional, geographical unit, remote from the center, but at the same time being a special socio-cultural system. Capital and provincial cultures are two specific subsystems of almost any national culture of spatially large countries.

Fundamental for defining the conceptual apparatus and the correlation of key concepts for us is the idea of a "dialogue of cultures" as the basis of the civilization of the future. A feature of the culture of the so-called new time, related To In the 18th century, along with the strengthening of secularism and the growth of attention to the human person, is the deepening of relations with other countries. The specificity of the Siberian region was in a significant influence on the life and cultural development of Asian countries, in particular China. However, in our research we give priority to the European vector, since the policy of enlightened absolutism presupposed versatile contacts with developed European countries. Russia in the 18th century borrowed a lot from European countries, and this applies not only to external manifestations, expressed in manners, clothing, and way of life. "Europeanization" has largely affected education and the cultural sphere.

Thus, the cultural life of Siberia under the conditions of the enlightened absolutism of Catherine II, by which we mean, first of all, the existence of two main layers of culture characteristic of the period under study: noble (or secular) culture and the culture of the bulk of the population - religious, peasant, constitutes a subject self-study. Secular culture - everything new, brought from European Russia, not widespread in Siberia before, and has become characteristic of cities. Peasant culture, spiritual - associated with centuries-old traditions, customs, religion, which continued to live mainly in the countryside.

The degree of study of the problem

It should be noted that some aspects of this topic were highlighted by historians, but, as a rule, in general works, where the issues of the cultural development of Siberia in the era of the enlightened absolutism of Catherine II were given a rather modest place. The first stage of development belongs to the pre-revolutionary period. Study of the culture of Siberia in the 18th century. at this time it was in its infancy. The famous explorer of Siberia G.F. Miller, like the entire Russian public of that time, perceived it as "a country in which neither science nor art flourished, and the ability to write, for the most part, was not widespread ...".

In the 40s - 80s. XIX century. The works of P.A. Slovtsova, A.P. Shchapova, V.K. Andrievich, P.M. Golovacheva, N.M. Yadrintseva devoted to general issues of the history of Siberia. In them, the first attempts were made to characterize the level of general culture in Siberia, which, as a rule, was assessed by the authors very low. 5 In the work published in 1845 and reprinted more than once by P.A. Slovtsov's "Historical Review of Siberia", in addition to economic and political problems, some issues of the cultural life of Siberia are considered. Basically, the author paid attention to traditional culture - the festive entertainment of the townspeople,

ancient pagan rituals of shamans, noting that these specific rituals in Siberia were preserved here and there in the 2nd half of the 18th century. 6

In the XIX - early XX centuries. on the pages of Siberian periodicals, fragmentarily different aspects of cultural development, including in the period of interest to us, are beginning to be considered. These are the publications of S.S. Shashkov, I. Malinovsky, V.A. Zagorsky (about the life and customs of Siberia in the 18th century), V.A. Vatina (the beginning of public education in Minusinsk), in which some regions of Siberia are studied separately, which does not allow us to see the general picture of the development of the cultural sphere. 7

“... Siberia was much more ignorant than Russia at that time, and the life of Siberian cities was noisy and ugly,” S. Shashkov noted in 1867. 8

I. Malinovsky in his article "Siberia and cultural issues" emphasized that Russia entered the stage of world history later than other states, but, nevertheless, being adjacent to the West and the East at the same time, carried out "the mission of being in the East a carrier and disseminator of European culture." When asked whether this mission was carried out, the author gives a negative answer, since the bulk of the population - simple Cossacks, service people, exiled criminals, escaped serfs, self-serving industrialists and merchants, various "walking people" - could not be the conductors of culture. He noted “an amazing ignorance, a complete lack of literacy, vices - as the main distinguishing feature of local residents, the absence of mail, books, magazines, newspapers ... Ignorance reigned between the merchants and even the highest ranks. Half of the priests and deacons could neither read nor write.

The disadvantage of these works is that they were all published without references to archival sources, which were undoubtedly used. Absolutely all of these authors also noted the extremely low level of Siberian culture.

In the XX century. a new stage begins in the historiography of the problem. At this time, special works appeared in which an attempt was made to illuminate

development of a particular area of cultural development. The first major research on one of the sections of the culture of pre-revolutionary Siberia was the book by N.S. Yurtsovsky "Essays on the history of education in Siberia", published in 1923 in Novonikolaevsk. This is a summary essay on the history of enlightenment in Siberia. In particular, the author pays attention to the organization of education in Siberia in the second half of the 18th century, and changes in it in connection with the school reform of Catherine II. ten

In 1924 D.A. Boldyrev-Kazarin published a brochure characterizing the applied arts of the Russian population of Siberia - peasant painting, ornament, woodcarving, sculpture, etc. At the same time, for the first time, he provides a justification for identifying a special style in architecture - the Siberian Baroque. "

One of the most significant in the study of Russian culture in pre-revolutionary Siberia was, of course, the publication in 1947 of the book by M. K. Azadovsky "Essays on the Literature and Culture of Siberia." The author of this book, along with a description of the development of literature in Siberia, was the first Soviet researchers to raise the question of the general nature and level of cultural development of Siberia in comparison with the European part of the country and made an attempt to give a general description of the cultural life of the region, highlighting the regional specifics (Irkutsk, Tobolsk) , without delving into a detailed examination of individual aspects of culture (education, theater, painting, architecture, etc.) and without links to archival materials.

Following the publication of M.K. Azadovsky's book in the 1940s - early 1960s. published a series of works devoted to the study of individual aspects of the cultural past of Siberia. Thus, the history of theater in Siberia was covered in the works of P.G. Malyarevsky, S.G. Landau, B. Zherebtsova. In accordance with generally accepted assessments of the Soviet era, these works contain mainly a negative opinion about the development of theatrical business in Siberia during the Age of Enlightenment. 13 B. Zherebtsov wrote: “Political and economic bondage in old Siberia was combined with a terrifying cultural backwardness even in comparison with the then Trans-Ural Russia. In the old

Siberia up to the 2nd half of the 19th century. there was no local social life, no literature, no theater. Cultural life was limited to extremely rare amateur performances, balls and military parades ... ".

Certain issues of the literary work of Siberians, the characteristics of their reading interests and the development of librarianship are considered in the works of M.N. Speransky, 3. Zhukov, G. Kungurov. 15 The latter, incidentally, gave a very positive assessment of the activities of Siberian writers in the Catherine era, and was the first to analyze the materials of periodicals of that time. | 6

1950-1953 EA Ashchepkov presented two large monographs on Russian folk architecture in Siberia. 17 The author examines mainly the monuments of Russian architecture in Siberia of the Konya of the 18th century. and later periods. At the same time, he gives a characteristic of the general line of change in architectural styles, planning and development of cities and villages, specific features of the development of Russian architecture in Siberia. This was followed by a number of works on the history of Siberian architecture with a specific analysis of its individual historical stages in a particular region of Siberia, as well as on the work of local architects. With regard to the period under study, from these works, one can note the studies of B.I. Ogly dedicated to the architecture of Irkutsk in the 18th - 19th centuries, V.I. Kochedamova on the architecture of Tobolsk and Tyumen. eighteen

In the 60s - early 80s. XX century, scientists have developed the question of the subject and tasks of studying the history of culture, as well as the very definition of "culture", in its own historical sense. The importance of studying culture as an integral part of historical development was emphasized. During this period, many different works were published, both on the history of the culture of pre-revolutionary Russia, and on the formation and prospects of Soviet culture.

The works of E.K. Romodanovskaya, published in the mid-1960s. devoted to the study of the reading circle of Siberians. In particular, Siberian literature and the reading interests of the population of Siberia in the 18th century were reflected in the article "New materials on the history of Siberian literature in the 18th century." In the study, the author gives examples of satirical epigrams, plays that were widespread in Siberia in the time we studied. She noted that the Siberians were familiar with the literature that was spread in the European part of Russia. 19

The issues of the cultural development of our region during the reign of Catherine II were summarized in one of the chapters of a 5-volume study on the history of Siberia, edited by A.P. Okladnikov, published in Leningrad in 1968 20

The first general characteristic of approaches to the study of Siberian culture as the culture of the Russian population and the results of this work achieved in Soviet historiography was given in 1968 by A.N. Kopylov, in a monograph on the culture of the Russian population of Siberia in the 17th and early 19th centuries. 21 Thus, in accordance with the interpretations of Soviet historical science that had developed by that time, the author wrote: “... Before the Great October Socialist Revolution, the study of the culture of Siberia in the 17th-18th centuries. was in its infancy. Studies on certain issues of the culture of the region in the form of essays, messages and notes, published in various pre-revolutionary publications, dealt mainly with private issues of the history of public education, as well as sketches from the history of icon painting, church libraries, book trade, publishing, church theater. In journalism and literary works, Siberia, for various reasons, was often portrayed as "impenetrable wilderness, the land of savagery and ignorance."

A.N. Kopylov proposed to study the culture of the Russian population of Siberia, first of all, solving two problems: 1) to draw a concrete historical picture of the development of Russian culture in one of the large and important components

parts of the country and 2) to identify the specific features of the cultural process in a given territory. " Of course, the works of this author contain generally accepted estimates, characteristic of the Soviet era. Thus, analyzing the historiography of research on Siberian culture, Kopylov noted: “... Undoubtedly, tsarism stifled any progressive thought in Russia and hindered the development of the masses, which was especially clearly manifested in Siberia, which was viewed as a source of enrichment for the royal treasury and place of exile for political prisoners and criminals ... ". 24 In the work "Essays on the cultural life of Siberia in the 17th - early 19th centuries", published in Novosibirsk in 1974, A.N. Kopylov gave a generalizing description of different areas of the culture of feudal Siberia. He noted, in particular, that architectural creativity, visual and theatrical art, school education and other branches of Siberian culture were formed under the influence of various elements of the North Russian, Central Russian and Ukrainian culture. A.N. Kopylov especially emphasized the importance of the powerful influence on the Siberian culture of the center of the country. 25

Studies of the problems of cultural development in the Siberian countryside are reflected in the literature. These are the works of M.M. Gromyko, published in Novosibirsk in the 1970s. and dedicated to the Russian population of Western Siberia Xviii in., as well as several works of N.A. Minenko on the history of the Russian peasant family, which analyzes the issues of labor education, education of the peasantry, the role of the church in the cultural life and everyday life of the village. " In particular, she noted that the enrollment in the Uchilish, opened by the decree of Catherine II, was not limited by the class framework, and therefore there were cases of enrollment in the Schools of peasants, although not in a large volume.

In the opinion modern Siberian researcher - D.Ya. Rezuna, waiting for closer attention and the problem of studying urban culture. Note that D.Ya. Rezun is one of the co-authors of the book on construction

Siberian cities and their cultural significance from XVII century until the 1980s. Currently, he believes that here and in approaches to this problem, the class approach prevailed, when the whole culture was clearly divided into culture.

exploiters and exploited. "Describing the topographic descriptions of Siberian cities, D. Ya. Rezun noted that question questionnaires: "What are the buildings of interest in the cities?" - According to the author, this is far from accidental, since in the 2nd half of the 18th century. Russian architectural tradition pays serious attention to the monuments of history and culture, striving to comprehend the Russian national style in the light of Western European trends. 29

The judgment of D.Ya. Rezun that urban culture as a historical category is a consensus of different levels of cultural values and skills, reflecting certain aesthetic and material needs of various segments of the population, within which there is the possibility of moving up and down. In his opinion, it is necessary to distinguish between the following levels, layers of urban culture: elite, associated with the life of higher education and official functions of the population (nobility, bureaucracy etc.); "Exchange-intelligent", reflecting the functions of different strata of the population associated with the exchange and transfer of technological, financial, moral and cultural values; “Mass”, within the framework of which the main category of urban bourgeois and commoners lived and thought; “Marginal” culture, associated primarily with various marginal and lumpenized strata of city dwellers who do not have a clearly defined social niche. thirty

In work G.F. Bulls, dedicated to the Russian non-taxable population of Eastern Siberia in the XVIII - early XIX in., published in 1985, were published archival information about the organization of public schools, the development of librarianship in the region. This work was continued by further study and publication of archival sources on the history of culture.

Krasnoyarsk, provided with detailed comments in the work "City near Krasny Yar" and "History of Krasnoyarsk". 31

One of the characteristic features of the modern historiographic context is the appeal to the theoretical and methodological experience of domestic and foreign humanitarian thought.

There was an outlined interest in the study of the provincial intelligentsia as a separate and specific object, in the clarification of its role in the system of regional culture. The uniqueness of Siberian culture was also noted, consisting in the fusion of streams coming from the "center" with local cultural traditions, which led to the formation of a special layer of culture. At the level of specialized - "branch" - research, approaches to identifying the specific historical originality of the "local culture", taking into account its multifunctionality, have been identified.

Almanacs, magazines, collections are published in almost every region and region; in Barnaul, Omsk, Kemerovo, Irkutsk, recently Tomsk and Novosibirsk have moved forward. The structure of the publications is varied, but there are attempts to move away from simplified models, to address the topic of selfless devotion, to place the figure of a local historian in the center as a special type of cultural worker. In our opinion, it is in these local experiments that the tendency towards real integration of scientific forces is most noticeable. It became obvious that such a research model is promising for the study of Russian culture as the history of the development of the culture of the Russian province. 32

The culture of Siberia is widely represented in popular science literature and local history publications of museums in Tyumen, Tobolsk, Omsk, Kemerovo, Irkutsk, Krasnoyarsk and other Siberian cities. All of the above testifies to the intensification of interest in the problems of the historical and cultural heritage of Siberia and the socio-cultural processes in the region. One of the most recent examples of progress towards a new model of studying the culture of the region

The emergence of a special journal "Cultural Studies in Siberia". 33

In the 1980s - 90s. the problem of studying Siberian architecture remained popular as before. In the works of T.M. Stspanskaya, P.I. Lebedeva, K. Yu. Shumova, G.F. Bykoni examines the history of the development of cities in Western and Eastern Siberia: Barnaul, Omsk, Irkutsk, Yeniseisk, Krasnoyarsk. The authors highlight the specifics of architectural structures characteristic of different urban centers of Siberia, pay attention to the cult and civil buildings of cities, the change in architectural styles in the 18th century. 34

Much attention at the present stage of the study of Siberian culture is paid to the educational sphere. Of Siberian studies proper, it is worth noting L.V. Nechaeva "Formation of the education system and its influence on the Russian artistic culture of Western Siberia in the 2nd half of the 18th century." protected in 2004 in Tobolsk. ^ In the same year in St. Petersburg the work of I. Cherkazyanova was published, dedicated to the school education of Russian Germans and the problem of the development and preservation of the German school in Siberia in the XVIII - XX centuries. The first chapter of this work examines the formation of the first German schools in Siberia and the role of the German clergy in organizing the education of Siberians. 6

Modern Russian researchers are also studying social life, adaptation of the Russian population in the conditions of the development of Siberia, the traditional consciousness of Siberians (ON Shelegin, AI Kupriyanov, ON Besedina, BE Andyusev). 37

Recently, there has been a noticeable increase in interest in the study of Russian culture in the context of the policy of enlightened absolutism. It is worth noting here, in particular, the newest collection "The Age of Enlightenment", which contains articles on various aspects of the cultural development of this era. "Moreover, all the latest publications on the problem are systematized in the collection.

Often the history of cultural life boiled down to a listing of what had been achieved and concerned, for the most part, the process of the emergence and accumulation of cultural monuments. This process is explored by the history of science, art, literature. And here one cannot but agree with B.I. Krasnobaev, who noted back in the 70s. XX century. That the study of cultural development should cover slightly different problems. These are issues of general culture, the history of the spread and distribution of cultural values, their assimilation by the people, as well as the importance of the cultural factor in the development of society. Krasnobaev noted that it was in the 18th century that, as a result of the implementation of the policy of enlightened absolutism, there was an intensive communication of various national cultures and peoples, as well as the interaction of various

European and Eastern peoples. Therefore, he emphasized, any culture

It is fundamentally wrong to study hell as self-contained;

The same question was raised by A.N. Kopylov, who wrote that the role of various disciplines in revealing the phenomenon of culture is not the same, and historical science is the only one that studies the process of cultural development in all its diversity, affecting not so much the creation of spiritual values as the formation and use of the cultural potential of society. 4 "

The spiritual life of Siberia in the second half of the eighteenth century is part of the so-called "new culture", which is characterized not only by secularism and the expansion of intercultural contacts, but also by the growing importance of the human personality. People belonged to different classes and estates, lived in the city and in the countryside, had different social status, and therefore some of them worked, while others passively perceived the culture, some could freely enjoy cultural values and receive an education, while others did not have this possibilities. To what extent has the Siberian region been affected by the policy of enlightened absolutism in the field of culture? How did the cultural processes of the Enlightenment affect the general cultural level and education of Siberians?

The purpose of the work is a study of the cultural development of the Siberian region in the context of the implementation of the policy of enlightened absolutism. Tasks:

Consider the conditions for the development of the culture of Siberia during the reign of Catherine II,

To reveal the qualitative changes in the cultural, leisure and educational sphere that took place in Siberia during the reign of Catherine II.

Reveal the degree of influence of the ideas of enlightenment on the elite (noble) and mass (peasant) culture, show changes in the relationship between traditional and innovative elements of culture in the region.

Determine to what extent the material base of the cultural sphere contributed to its development.

As object The study focused on the cultural life of Siberia under the conditions of the enlightened absolutism of Catherine II, by which we mean, first of all, two layers of culture characteristic of the period under study: the noble (or secular) culture and the culture of the bulk of the population - religious, peasant.

Subject studies were the changes that took place in the cultural sphere under the influence of the ideas of enlightened absolutism and their influence on various layers of Siberian society.

Chronological framework cover the period 1762-1796. - the reign of Catherine II, the time of the implementation of the policy of enlightened absolutism.

Territorial scope: As a result of the local government reform, the government successively in 1782 and 1783 created the Tobolsk, Irkutsk and Kolyvan governorship in Siberia. Western Siberia covered two out of three governorships - Tobolsk and part of Kolyvanskiy. Eastern Siberia included the Irkutsk governorship and part of the Kolyvansky. We consider it necessary to oppose Western Siberia with the center in Tobolsk, where the noble culture prevailed, and Eastern Siberia with

center in Irkutsk, gradually becoming the center of a new bourgeois culture. At the same time, the study gives priority to the culture of the Russian population, without analyzing the cultural life of the indigenous peoples of Siberia. The specificity of the region was in the presence of a huge economic potential, and its peripherality in relation to the European part of the country, with special climatic and socio-cultural conditions.

Research methodology. The topic chosen for study requires substantiation of methodological principles. In our opinion, this topic is complex, and therefore requires study from the standpoint of different theoretical and methodological approaches, principles and methods.

Important for this study is civilized approach, submitted by N. Ya. Danilevsky, O. Spengler, A. Toynbee, F. Braudel. Mentality, spirituality, interaction with other cultures were recognized as the main structural elements of civilization as “a single cultural-historical system in all manifestations with an internal mechanism of functioning”. Considering the problem of interaction between German-Roman and Russian cultures, N.Ya. Danilevsky noted that at the beginning of the 18th century. Russian life was forcibly turned over to the European way. This process proceeded gradually, at first capturing only the upper layers, but little by little this distortion of Russian life began to spread in breadth and in depth. In general, Danilevsky negatively assessed cultural borrowings from the West, which took place throughout the eighteenth century. Danilevsky called these borrowings "Europeanism", which was expressed in the distortion of the people's way of life and the replacement of its forms with alien, foreign forms; in borrowing and planting various foreign institutions; in looking at internal and external relations and issues from a foreign, European point of view. Danilevsky believed that the nature of borrowing has an important influence on the merger of subordinate nationalities with the dominant nationality. These nationalities retain their national forms of culture, life, but their individual representatives, going out into the open

General state life has always tried to take over the life situation of the upper classes of the ruling people. 41

The study of changes in the cultural life of Siberia under the conditions of enlightened absolutism was carried out from the standpoint apthropocentric approach. This approach involves the study of the interests, needs, actions of people, the influence of culture on their daily life. This approach was used to study the cultural needs and cultural and leisure activities of the Siberian population.

Formal approach lately has come under serious criticism due to the exaggeration of the role of the economic factor in the development of human society. However, it contains points of interest for this study. As noted, the fundamental provision for the period under study is the mutual influence of cultures. One of the Marxist theorists G.V. Plekhanov divided influence in the field of the spiritual life of society into one-sided and two-sided. "The influence is one-sided, when one people, due to its backwardness, can not give anything to the other ... This influence is mutual, when, due to the similarity of social life, and, consequently, cultural development, each of the two exchanging peoples can borrow something from the other." 42 The Culture of Enlightenment is multilateral mutual contacts in the field of culture, which can be represented as a kind of chain: Europe - central Russia - Siberia,

We consider it necessary to use the methodology in the dissertation dialogue of cultures, which was developed in the works of M.M. Bakhtina He noted that the dialogue is characterized by the unity of mutual understanding of its participants and the preservation of each of them their position. 4 “Bakhtin noted, firstly, the synthesis of the initial positions, their merging into one common one. Secondly, when“ during the dialogical meeting of two cultures, they do not merge and do not mix, each retains its unity and open integrity, but they are mutually enriched. Third, a situation is possible in which dialogue leads, first of all, to an understanding of significant, fundamental differences

the initial settings, when the more delimitations, the better. " With regard to the issue we are considering, there was a second situation when the culture of Siberia came into contact with the European culture dominating in central Russia, while preserving its originality and taking in the best that the cultures of other peoples had accumulated. The intensity of the dialogue is in direct proportion to the level of development of the parties, their culture, the number of participants involved in it.

The theoretical basis for the study of culture was the work of culturologists B.S. Erasova, I. V. Kondakova, A. Ya. Flier. 45 They concentrate the conceptual and categorical apparatus of cultural studies, which is necessary for understanding cultural processes, as well as generalized approaches to the analysis of the social functioning of culture. I.V. Kondakov, exploring the phenomenon of the culture of the Enlightenment, as well as N.Ya. Danilevsky, believed that cultural transformations touched only the "top" - that is, enlightened nobility, which not only did not lead to the unity of the classes, but also exacerbated the gap between secular and traditional culture, between the "educated classes" and

"Unenlightened mass".

The research was based on the general scientific principles of historicism and objectivity. The use of the first of them made it possible to consider the object of study in all its diversity and contradictions. The principle of objectivity made it possible to carry out a comprehensive and critical analysis of events and phenomena. Comparative, logical, systemic methods were also used when writing the thesis.

Source base the research comprised unpublished (archival) documents and published materials. One of the main sources were official documents - decrees of Catherine II, as well as periodicals, notes of foreigners about Siberia, etc.

The first group of sources consisted of archival documents. We have studied the materials of the Tobolsk branch of the State Archives of the Tyumen

region (TF GATO), the State Archives of the Krasnoyarsk Territory (GAKK), the State Archives of the Irkutsk Region (GAIO).

One of the main sources for the development of the topic of this research was the materials stored in the TF GLTO. This can be explained by the fact that it was Tobolsk in the studied time that was the center of the Siberian region. Our attention was drawn to the fund of the Tobolsk Spiritual Consistory (F. 156), which contains information about the life and culture of the population. It was to the Tobolsk spiritual consistory that the main decrees, reports, promemories, criminal cases flocked from all over Siberia, most of which relate to the religious, cultural, leisure, everyday, educational spheres of Siberian life. This allows us to judge the everyday life of different layers of the urban and rural population: nobles, officials, peasants, foreigners, Old Believers, etc.

The Fund of the Tobolsk Governmental Board (F. 341) also contains a number of materials on the problem under study. These are mainly cases pursuant to official government decrees. The fund of the Tobolsk order of public charity (F. I-355), which was in charge of schools, public institutions, hospitals, contains cases on the receipt of funds from the sale of books published in the Tobolsk printing house of the merchant Korniliev, estimates for the repair of the theater and other public institutions of the city. except this in the fund contains detailed information about the school reform and organization of the learning process in Siberian small public schools. Fund 661 (Decrees of the Tobolsk police chief's office) contains decrees on the improvement of Tobolsk.

The AAACK studied the materials of the city hall fund (F. 122). Of interest were the minutes of meetings of the town hall, as well as cases on the collection of fines from peasants for evading confession and communion. The funds of the Tobolsk and Irkutsk spiritual consistories, stored in the AAKKK (F. 812, 813), contain important materials for us about the construction of churches, the state of affairs in parishes on the subject of superstitions. Foundations of Turukhansky Troitsky and Spassky

male monasteries (F. 594, 258) include materials on various aspects of culture - chronicle writing, book distribution, etc.

At GAIO, we were primarily interested in the foundation of the Irkutsk Spiritual Consistory (F, 50), which also contains information about the life and culture of the Siberian population.

Official documents were an important source. These are, first of all, the decrees of Catherine II in the field of culture, the provisions of which extended to the territory of Siberia; Decree on the regulation of city plans (1768), decree on the establishment of the "Free Russian Assembly", engaged in the publication of literary, historical works and research work in the field of language and literature (1771), decree on free printing houses (1783), Decree of the Commission on the establishment of Main and Small People's Schools (1786), decrees on the development of theater, book business in Russia, etc. (Decrees of Catherine II (1767-86). In addition, some information about the regulation of public life and control on the implementation of religious norms, we gleaned in the Charter of the Deanery (police charter) of Catherine II, published in 1782.

A significant layer of material was taken from published sources. All materials used can be divided into several genres: information messages, scientific and educational articles, travel notes. First of all, this is the information contained v periodicals of Siberia in the 80s - 90s. XVIII century The study of the materials of the magazines "Irtysh turning into Ippokrene" (IPI) and "Library scientist, historical, economic ..." allows us to judge the development of some aspects of the cultural and leisure activities of Siberian residents, the topical issues at that time that interested readers, and rose in the pages of publications.

When we mention travel notes, we mean, first of all, the notes of Russian and foreign nationals who visited Siberia for various purposes. They are political prisoners, scientists, travelers who

left their impressions in the travel descriptions. In these materials, you can also borrow information about everyday life, the cultural appearance of Siberian cities and population. These descriptions often formed a certain view of the development of Siberian culture and everyday life among Russian historians.

An interesting source was the published letters of A.N. Radishchev from Tobolsk, addressed to A.R. Vorontsov. They contain curious observations and the author's assessments concerning Siberian life and culture. 47 From the travel observations of foreign citizens, one should single out the notes of E. Laxman, P. Pallas, translated by V. Lagus, and published in St. Petersburg in 1890. 48 In the 60s. XX century work on the generalization and systematization of the notes of foreign citizens about Siberia was continued. Thus, the researcher E.P. Zinner in his work "Siberia in the news of Western European travelers and scientists of the 18th century." collected the notes of August Kotzebue, Johann Ludwig Wagner, Abbot Chappe d "Otrosh. 49 EP Zinner published in his collection only a small excerpt from Chappe d" Otrosh "Journey to Siberia. Only in 2005 was published a wonderful edition of the French researcher Helene Carrer d "Encausse, entitled" The Empress and the Abbot. Unpublished literary duel between Catherine II and Abbot Chappe d "Otroche". 50 This edition contains not only the translation of the Frenchman's own notes, but also the translation of the famous refutation - "Antidote", whose authorship is not without reason attributed to Catherine II. In particular, E. Carrer d "Encausse cites in a note the arguments on this matter of the historian A.N. Pypin, the greatest connoisseur of Catherine's era at the beginning of the 20th century. the opinion that "the attention of the government did not turn to Siberia at all."

Of undoubted interest were the published documents of the Siberian archives contained in the Krasnoyarsk editions “City near Krasny Yar: Documents and Materials on the History of Krasnoyarsk Xvii- Xviii centuries ", compiled by G.F. Bykony and L.P. Shorokhov, and republished and

the supplemented edition "History of Krasnoyarsk: Documents and materials of the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries." G.F. Bykoni, as well as in the collection "Historical and Cultural Monuments of the Krasnoyarsk Territory" edited by G.L. Ruksha. In addition, some published documents and materials of the State Archives of the Altai Territory were taken from the 1999 regional studies textbook "Culture in Altai in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries."

A kind of source was the publication of documents in the complex of pre-revolutionary periodicals of literary and regional studies of the XIX - early XX centuries: "Siberian Archive", "Siberian Issues", "Literary Collection", published in the edition of the "East Siberian Review". These publications often included short sketches from the cultural and everyday life of ancient Siberia.

The totality of sources made it possible to analyze the cultural life of Siberia in the conditions of enlightened absolutism.

Scientific novelty of work lies in the fact that for the first time the object of special historical research was changes in the culture of the Siberian region during the implementation of the policy of enlightened absolutism of Catherine II. A culturological approach was used to highlight this topic. New archival materials have been introduced into scientific circulation.

The practical significance of the work. Generalizations and factual material of the dissertation can be used in the creation of generalizing works on the history of Siberia, in educational courses on local history, museum practice.

Government cultural policy

By the conditions of cultural development, we mean a concrete historical situation that contributed to the formation and change of certain branches of culture, under the influence of the ideas of enlightened absolutism, and also contributed to the introduction of representatives of Siberian society to the new culture.

Enlightened absolutism is a policy that was implemented at a time when the flaws of the feudal system, which had become obsolete, became obvious. The theoretical foundations of this policy were developed in the works of European enlighteners - Montesquieu, Voltaire, Diderot, D Alambert, Rousseau and others. The ideas of the Enlightenment were shared to one degree or another by many monarchs of the middle and second half of the 18th century. Catherine II, who ascended the throne in 1762, was among them. The doctrines of the policy of enlightened absolutism were expressed in the dissemination of liberal ideas of European enlighteners, the reform of social relations on the basis of "universal equality", the enlightenment of the nation, and the patronage of the sciences and arts.

The traditional view of the politics of enlightened absolutism in Catherine's era was limited to an analysis of regulations, and in particular Catherine II's favorite "brainchild" - "Order". This allowed some historians to conclude that enlightened absolutism existed until the mid-70s. XVIII century, and after the uprising led by E.I. The Pugacheva Empress, abandoning the ideals of the Enlightenment, began to pursue a conservative course. But we agree with those researchers of the reign of Catherine II who believe that it is fundamental to consider the policy of enlightened absolutism not only political actions, but also those measures that were taken by the empress and were aimed at improving human nature. Thanks to these measures, it was possible to achieve outstanding cultural achievements associated with the spread of the ideas of the Enlightenment in Russia in the 2nd half of the 18th century. Catherine II continued the cultural endeavors of her predecessors - Peter I, Empress Elizabeth Petrovna. As an enlightened monarch, Catherine II naturally considered herself the patroness of the arts and sciences, actively contributing to the development of the cultural sphere. During her reign, many branches of culture flourished. These changes affected Siberia in the most direct way.

Researchers note that at the first stage of the settlement of Siberia, the formation of a cadre of literate people, architects, and public figures was recruited at the expense of newcomers from the European part of the country.1 However, at the beginning of the 18th century, its own specialists appeared in Siberia. During the reign of Catherine II in Siberia, the number of public figures, progressive people of their time, who were the bearers of a new secular culture, supporters of public education, increased. Since that time, the history of the culture of Siberia has become closely linked with the history of the culture of the European part of Russia; all official documents introducing cultural innovations have been distributed to the Siberian region.

In accordance with the doctrine of the enlightenment of the nation, during the reign of Catherine II, the rise of the organizational activity of many prominent scientists and cultural figures was characteristic, which was aimed at creating a number of educational institutions. Much attention was paid to the education of the younger generation. The Empress herself in the "Order" drew attention to this.2 The special commission was preparing a draft of new legislation, the issue of expanding education, including among peasant children, was repeatedly discussed. As a result of this activity, in the second half of the 18th century, a whole system of secular schools was created for training specialists in various fields of science, technology, art, and education.

On August 5, 1786, the Charter on the opening of the Main and Small People's Schools was approved. It was extended to Siberia without changes. During 1789-1790 13 public schools were organized on the territory of Siberia: 3 Main - in Tobolsk, Irkutsk and Barnaul and 10 Small - in Tyumen, Turinsk, Tara, Tomsk, Kuznetsk, Narym, Krasnoyarsk, Yeniseisk, Irkutsk, Verkhneudinsk, most of them were in Western Siberia and was part of the Tobolsk province.

The patronage of the sciences and arts, and as a result - their distribution and development, during the reign of Catherine II was also put in a number of priority tasks. Therefore, much attention was paid to the upbringing of creative abilities, cultural needs of the individual. This led to the intensive development of literature, periodicals, theatrical and book business. In the development of these industries, on the one hand, the continuity of the traditions of the time of Peter the Great affected, on the other hand, new trends in the political, social, literary and artistic spheres of activity were taken into account. One of them was acquaintance with foreign literature, which was associated with the rapidly developing countries of Western Europe. However, the flow of books from abroad did not prevent the increase in publications of domestic literature. The first private printing houses appeared in St. Petersburg in 1769.3 The decree "On free printing houses" was issued in 1783. It initiated the opening of private printing houses in many Russian cities. In Siberia, the first printing houses appeared in Irkutsk (1785) and Tobolsk (1789).

Under the influence of Russian and European literature, theatrical art also developed in the 2nd half of the 18th century. This process began in Yaroslavl, where in the middle of the century F.G. Volkov created the first Russian professional public theater. During the reign of Catherine II, amateur theaters appeared in many Russian cities, including Siberian ones. Russian theatrical culture in Siberia went through the same stages of formation and development as in European Russia.

The Age of Enlightenment was characterized by a change in people's attitudes towards the church. And, first of all, this change affected the cultural sphere. I. Kondakov noted that secularization divided the previously unified Russian culture into “culture proper” and “faith.” 4 Russia's introduction to the cultural values of Western European civilization was contradictory and ambiguous. Patriarchy on the one hand, and a decisive breakdown of old institutions on the other. However, the influence of the church on cultural development and secular life in European Russia in the era under study was significantly limited.

Nevertheless, a feature of the Enlightenment era in Siberia is the significant influence of the church on all cultural processes. Time itself presupposed a close intertwining of the secular and spiritual areas of culture. In European Russia, in the era under study, the influence of the church on secular culture is weakening, which cannot be said about Siberia. The church continued to play an important role here and influenced not only cultural processes, but also the daily life of Siberians.

Siberian cities as centers of cultural development

The economic uniqueness of Siberian cities and their different historical fates determined the originality of cultural life in Siberia. In this regard, certain cultural centers arose. The two large cities of Siberia, Tobolsk and Irkutsk, especially attracted the attention of their contemporaries. In the eyes of later historians, Tobolsk was a symbol of old Siberia, while a new culture was ripening in Irkutsk.

The first thing that foreigners who visited Siberian cities paid attention to was the urban structure - an architectural appearance, undoubtedly distinguished by a certain color, the state of streets and public institutions. Although the sources contain fragmentary images of many Siberian cities (Okhotsk, Mangazeya, Yeniseisk, Krasnoyarsk, Tyumen) and their inhabitants, most often the two largest cities in Siberia of that time - Tobolsk and Irkutsk - became the objects of description.

In 1768, a book was published in Paris under the intriguing European readers of the 2nd half of the 18th century. the title "Travel to Siberia". It was written by a member of the French Academy of Sciences, Abbot Chappe d Otrosh, who visited Russia and reached Tobolsk in order to conduct astronomical observations. In many ways, Chapp d Otrosh was negatively disposed towards Russia. It is not surprising that in Journey to Siberia he acted as an active disseminator of many anti-Russian stereotypes and myths designed to create a negative image of Russia in Western public opinion and thereby justify its aggressiveness towards Russia. Here is Shapp d Otrosh's testimony about Tobolsk, the largest city in Siberia at that time: “... the houses in the city are all wooden and built very poorly. It is difficult to walk down the street even in the high part of the city because of the great mud ... ”9

Johann Ludwig Wagner is a German exiled to Siberia for a political crime - espionage. His stay in Siberia lasted several years, and ended in November 1763. By this time there is a certificate of Tobolsk, in which Wagner, like Abbot Shapp, notes that “... Tobolsk is a big city, but not beautiful. All streets are paved with logs. There are many swampy and wild places in the city ... All the buildings are made of wood, with the exception of most of the beautiful churches in the city under the mountain and the residence of the archbishop, built of stone ... ”10

However, not all foreigners were so categorical and aggressive. A different picture was seen by those who entered into closer ties with the population. These are scientists: naturalist Eric Laxman - a Finn who lived for a long time in Irkutsk, a former pastor of the Lutheran parish of the Kolyvano-Voskresensk mines, elected as a correspondent of the Academy of Sciences, ace in 1781 - a mining adviser in Nerchinsk; Peter Simon Pallas, invited by Catherine II as an associate of the Academy of Sciences, who published the notes "Travels in different provinces of the Russian state in 1768-1774"; Pallas' correspondent is the Frenchman Patren; Johann Gottlieb Georgi - a member of the Pallas expedition since 1768, after returning to St. Petersburg, he published his notes; Johann Sievers - a scientist botanist, a member of the Academy of Sciences and the Free Economic Society, who traveled extensively in Siberia; Mongolist Ierig, British travelers Billings, Ledyard, Lesseps, Sivere, etc. Thus, not all foreigners were negatively disposed towards Siberian cities and their inhabitants. Those who were in closer contact with the culture and life of Siberians found a lot of positive phenomena in them. In addition, it is important to note that often foreigners who lived permanently in Russia were appointed by the empress to leading positions in places, including in Siberia, and often made a significant contribution to the development of the cultural sphere of the area that they ruled.

Transformation of the education system

The mental life of Siberian cities in Catherine's time, as well as the cultural level in general, seemed to many contemporaries and historians to be very primitive: , of course, it was still unthinkable ... "- noted the historian.1 Often the statement about" amazing ignorance, illiteracy and complete lack of education "of Siberians. However, it appears to be controversial. Education is the most important indicator of the general culture of people. In particular, this applies to the people of the 18th century, because at that time, in such a remote region from the center, education testified to a certain cultural level of each of them.

As you know, in Siberia, as, indeed, in all of Russia, all educational institutions were subdivided into spiritual and secular. In general, throughout the 18th century. the network of secular educational institutions in the region expanded. Before Catherine II carried out the school reform in 1786, there were various types of schools in Siberia.

Garrison schools existed in Siberia under various names (Cossack, military orphanage departments, etc.): Omsk, Petropavlovsk, Biyskaya (for 450 students), Yamyshevskaya, Tobolskaya. The latter could accept 500 students, but in 1772 173 students studied in it, in 1796 - 200 people.2 They taught elementary literacy, military affairs, and also various crafts - locksmith, blacksmith, carpentry, shoemaker in garrison schools. In some places, higher-level schools arose on the basis of the garrison. In the center of the Siberian Cossack army - Omsk in the 60s of the 18th century. from the children who graduated from the garrison schools, they trained translators and interpreters, and with the engineering team - draftsmen and cartographers. In 1789, the so-called Asian school for the training of translators and interpreters of the Tatar, Kalmyk, Mongolian and Manchu languages was opened here at the same military orphan department.

Such a school also existed in Irkutsk, as evidenced by the letter of the Irkutsk governor F. Klitschka about sending talented students from the Tobolsk Theological Seminary to study the Mongolian and Chinese languages, in order to then appoint them as translators. It was also indicated that people appointed for the position of translators can make a career, reaching the officer ranks. "This letter was forwarded to the Tobolsk governor D.I. Chicherin, who in turn turned to Bishop Varlaam. It is possible that the students of Tobolsk Theological Seminary were reluctant to agree In the file, only one petition of the seminary student Efim Strelbitsky was preserved, with a request to let him go to Irkutsk to study oriental languages, but with the condition of returning back at his own expense if he does not like it there.

Another case that has survived is the appointment of seminarians wishing to study medical and surgical science as medical students. The place where they wanted to assign the students was not indicated. It is known that the training of medical personnel began in Siberia in the middle of the 18th century / The head physician Abram Eshke, appointed in 1751 to the post of Chief physician of the Kolyvano-Voskresensky mountain district, was instructed to open a medical school at the Barnaul hospital based on the model of schools at Moscow and Petersburg hospitals. A truly medical school in Barnaul began to function in 1758, when Nikita Grigorievich Nozhevshchikov, one of the outstanding physicians of Russia in the 18th century, took over the duties of the Chief Physician. However, there was a shortage of medical personnel, and there was a constant need for apprentices. In 1788, by decree of the Empress, it was ordered to find those wishing to become disciples of the doctor. The reports of the rector of the seminary, Archimandrite Gennady, state that none of the students agreed to enter medical and surgical science, despite the fact that the decree was announced in the classrooms.6

In addition, the first technical educational institutions appeared in Siberia. These include geodetic schools, which are close in their curriculum to navigation schools.

In Western Siberia, a combined verbal and arithmetic school with mining specialization was created in Barnaul, similar to the Ural mining schools. The documents show that the Barnaul School of Literature was housed in a house consisting of three chambers (rooms) with three brick ovens and twelve windows. The list of students compiled by S.A. Shelkovnikov for the September third of 1759, indicates that the school had 37 students aged 5 to 14 years. These were the children of clerks and artisans. The academic year lasted all 12 months, subdivided into thirds, 4 months each. After a third of the year and for the entire year, a report was submitted to the Chancellery, which provided information on the composition of students, their age, the time of entering school, and the disciplines of education. At school, children were 6-7 years old, and sometimes more. When a student was 14-15 years old, he was immediately "assigned to the service." Those who did not show the proper success in their studies were expelled from school much earlier, and from the age of 12-13 they worked in production. Despite the fact that the period of study at school was long, the amount of knowledge, skills and abilities was given very little.

Life and culture of Siberia 17-20 centuries.

LIFE AND CULTURE OF SIBERIA IN THE 17TH CENTURY

The formation of Siberian culture took place on the basis of feudal socio-economic relations that were taking shape in the vast region. The results of this process, in turn, influenced the appearance and level of development of Siberian society. The process of cultural adaptation had features for all Siberians and manifested itself in a special way for each social stratum.

There is a great similarity of the Cossack life with the life of the indigenous population. And everyday relations very close to the Cossacks with the natives, in particular, with the Yakuts. Cossacks and Yakuts trusted and helped each other. The Yakuts willingly lent their kayaks to the Cossacks, helped them in hunting and fishing. When the Cossacks had to go away for a long period on business, they handed over their livestock to their Yakut neighbors for keeping. Many local residents who converted to Christianity themselves became service people, they developed common interests with Russian settlers, and a close way of life was formed.

Mixed marriages of newcomers with natives, both baptized and those who remained in paganism, became widespread. It should be borne in mind that the church viewed this practice with great disapproval.

Local culture, as already mentioned, undoubtedly influenced the culture of Russians. But the influence of Russian culture on the native one was much stronger. And this is quite natural: the transition of a number of indigenous ethnic groups from hunting, fishing and other primitive trades to agriculture meant not only an increase in the level of technological equipment of labor, but also advancement to a more developed culture.

Of course, the process of mutual influence of cultures was complicated. The tsarist regime with its colonial policy to a certain extent restrained the cultural development of the Siberian population, both newcomers and aboriginal. But the peculiarities of the social structure that existed in Siberia: the absence of landlord land tenure, the restriction of monastic claims to the exploitation of the peasantry, the influx of political exiles, the settlement of the region by enterprising people - stimulated its cultural development. The culture of the aborigines was enriched by the Russian national culture. The literacy of the population increased, albeit with great difficulties. In the 17th century, literate people in Siberia were mainly clergy. However, there were literate people among the Cossacks, tradesmen, traders and even peasants. With all the limitations of cultural development in Siberia, the foundation was laid for the further spiritual enrichment of its inhabitants, which began to manifest itself more fully from the next, 18th century.

LIFE AND CULTURE OF SIBERIA: IN THE 18TH CENTURY

The same can be said about the dwelling: buildings in Western and Eastern Siberia, in the northern and southern regions had their own specifics. On the outskirts of Siberia, in the Far East and especially in the lower reaches of the Kolyma, the temporary dwellings of the Russians on the settlements differed little from the huts of the aborigines.

As the newcomer population took root, a street layout of the settlement appeared, designed for a long, and perhaps permanent life in them. The construction technique of "felling" houses was tested. The type of dwelling was functionally determined: it had a "svetlitsa" (upper room) and a "flickering" (cook), connected by a passage. Initially, this type of dwelling appears in Western Siberia, and then spreads to the east and north. F.P. Wrangel, for example, described the two-chambered dwelling of the Kolyma residents. In these houses in the summer the windows were covered with a fish bubble, and in the winter they were covered with ice floes. Elements borrowed from the natives were used in the arrangement: the Yakut felt instead of the Russian stove, reindeer skins.

Houses were cut, as a rule, from two "cages" connected to each other. At first, dwellings were built without decorations, and then they began to decorate platbands, cornices, wickets, gates and other elements of the house. Over time, the dwelling became more harmonious, comfortable for living. In different regions of Siberia, there were covered yards, which was very convenient for the owners. The houses of Siberian old-timers were kept clean and tidy, which testifies to the rather high everyday culture of this category of settlers.

The Russian people adopted from the aborigines and successfully used elements of the local culture of fishing, hunting, and cattle breeding. In turn, the influence of everyday stereotypes of Russians on the life of the natives was great. There is evidence that the Lower Ob Khanty bought flour, canvas, fur coats, colored cloth, iron axes, knives, spears, arrows, traps for catching animals, flint, copper and iron cauldrons, hemp, red skins from the Russians.

By the end of the 18th century, the Mansi adopted the Russian way of life, they began to speak Russian. Evenks and Evens paid yasak mainly in money, and the policy of Christianization provided that newly-baptized natives for three years were exempt from; payment of yasak and other taxes.

F.P. Wrangel noted that the Yukaghirs "from continuous intercourse with the Russians" adopted their way of life, the type of clothing and the arrangement of huts. Yukaghir houses are built of logs, as a rule, they have one spacious room. The clothes of the Yukaghirs are completely similar to the clothes of the Russians living here. Most of them use Russian. "Foreigners" of the Vogul tribe live mixed with Russian peasants and, therefore, differ little from them in their way of life and everyday life. They are more and more

are engaged in agriculture and move to a sedentary life. Yurts near

many of them are as comfortable as middle-income houses

state peasants with whom they communicate. The Aleuts also began to use tools of labor, firearms borrowed from the Russians, began to build log houses, etc. But at the same time, they also preserved traditional dwellings, the famous leather boats (kayaks), and hunting clothes.

Under the influence of the Russians, social relations began to change: the clan community began to collapse.

The children of the clergy were taught basic literacy, i.e. read, write and sing church services. At the beginning of the 18th century, about 1705, a joyful event took place in Siberia: the first church theater was created in Tobolsk. The merit in its creation belongs to Metropolitan Leshchinsky.

In the 20s of the 18th century, the spiritual school in Tobolsk was already quite active. In 1725, a theological school was created in Irkutsk at the Ascension Monastery, and in 1780 the second seminary in Siberia was opened in this city.

Theological schools also trained personnel for civilian institutions. The schools had libraries with books, including rare books, manuscripts and other riches of spiritual culture. The missionary activity of the church played an important role in spreading the culture. There was also an appropriate legal basis for such activities - the decree of Metropolitan Philotheus, issued in 1715. Missionaries were trained from the children of the Khanty and Mansi. In the future, dozens of other missions created similar schools, in which hundreds of people studied. Thus, the Church, to some extent, achieved the achievement of its enlightened goals. But these schools were not very viable, many of them, having existed for a very short time, were closed.

Secular educational institutions appeared mainly later than spiritual ones, although there were exceptions: the digital school in Tobolsk opened in the first quarter of the 17th century. It had about 200 students.

Garrison schools were also organized, in which they taught literacy, military affairs and crafts. They trained translators and interpreters: the first - for writing, and the second - for interpretation from Russian and into Russian. Vocational and technical schools were also opened, among them - factory, navigation, geodetic. Medical schools also appeared. From the end of the 18th century, public schools have been opened in Siberia. In the Irkutsk and Tobolsk schools, along with other subjects, a number of languages were studied. In the Irkutsk school these were Mongolian, Chinese and Manchu languages, and in Tobolsk - also Tatar.

The cultural and historical development of Siberia is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon. It includes the culture of the ancient inhabitants of the region and, starting from the end of the 16th century. culture of the Russian population. 58

In pre-revolutionary historical and journalistic literature, Siberia was mainly portrayed as an impenetrable wilderness, a land of savagery and ignorance. Undoubtedly, tsarism stifled all progressive thought and hindered the cultural development of the masses. This was especially evident in Siberia, which was viewed as a source of enrichment for the tsarist treasury and a place of exile for political prisoners. However, the lack of landlordism, the constant influx of political exiles - the leading people of their time, scientific expeditions to Siberia, and especially the settlement and development of Siberia by the Russian people had a great positive impact on the historical and cultural development of the region. 59 The culture of the Russian population of Siberia not only enriched the original culture of the aborigines, but also contributed to its further development, which was a worthy contribution to the general Russian national culture.

VK Andrievich wrote about the absence in Siberia until the 18th century. literate people, with the exception of the clergy. 60 However, among the Cossacks, tradesmen, peasants who set out to explore the new land, there were many literate people who were engaged in describing localities, making plans for settlements, painting houses, churches, composing various "literature", etc. In the markets of Tobolsk, Yeniseisk, Verkhoturye, Tyumen, at least from the 40s of the 17th century, grammars, alphabets, psalters, books of hours began to appear, which was undoubtedly caused by the increased demand for literature. 61 The demand for "teaching" books especially increased in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. The leaders of the Siberian Prikaz, having drawn attention to this, began to buy educational literature in Moscow and send it to the Siberian governors for sale "at a profit." So, in February 1703, the head of the Siberian order, A.A. Vinius, ordered to buy at the Printing House 300 alphabets, 100 books of hours, 50 "teaching" psalters and send them to Verkhoturye for sale at a profit children ". 62 It is noteworthy that a year later, a particularly significant demand for the alphabet was noted in the Verkhoturye estimate. 63

The main form of public enlightenment in pre-Petrine Rus' was training from private "masters" and letters. Siberia was not an exception in this respect. Until the beginning of the 18th century. there were no schools here, and scribes, clerks, clergymen and just literate people acted as private teachers. Teaching was primitive and aimed at practical-applied literacy (taught to read and write). But in the 17th century. and here there were already people with a craving for broader knowledge, who achieved significant success either through self-education, like S. U. Remezov, or continued their studies in large cultural centers of Russia, like Andrei Nesgovorsky, who went from Tobolsk to Kiev "book for the sake of learning" ... 64

In the second half of the 17th century. In the course of the struggle of the official church against heresies and schism, a movement began to improve the cultural and educational level of the Russian clergy, and at the end of the century the government of Peter I set a course for the preparation of competent secular personnel necessary for the implementation of a broadly conceived program of state reforms in Russia. These new trends of the time in the field of culture, associated with the exacerbation of the class struggle and the emergence of absolutism, also captured Siberia.

In 1702-1703. in Tobolsk, at the bishop's house, the first provincial school in Siberia and the second in Russia was opened to train the lower ranks of clergy (after the school in Rostov, 1702). 65

The decree of Peter I on its opening was sent to Tobolsk back in 1697/98 to Metropolitan Ignatius. But the latter soon fell into disgrace, and the opening of the school was delayed. According to the tsar's decree of January 9, 1701, a nobleman Andrei Ivanovich Gorodetsky was sent to Tobolsk as a "clerk and clerk" to the Sofia Metropolitan House. He was ordered "to establish and expand the words of God in the Sofia courtyard, or where it is appropriate, by building a school", to teach the children of the ministers of the church "to read and write, and then verbal grammar and read books in the Slovenian language." 66 For teaching positions, it was recommended to find "skillful worldly good people" locally or in some other city. By the time the new Metropolitan (Philofei Leshchinsky) arrived in Tobolsk in the spring of 1702, the school was apparently mostly built. In the summer of 1702, Filofei wrote that school buildings "are being built to perfection," and children gather for education, but there are no books they need. 67 The Tobolsk voivode Mikhail Cherkassky in the same year reported to the Siberian order on the completion of the construction of the school and noted that it was located in the Sofia courtyard at the Trinity Church. 68

Filofei intended to organize teaching in the school he was opening on the model of the southwestern theological schools. By his order, in 1702, the metropolitan son of boyar Eremey Ivanov went to Kiev with an order to purchase “church services and grammar books” for the Tobolsk school, as well as to recruit “a black clerk into archdeacons, and two teachers of Latin science, 4 students, students 2 human". 69 In the Pechora monastery, he acquired 206 educational and service books. 70

Children of clergymen were admitted to the school. They were taught mainly basic literacy: to read (an ABC book, a book of hours, a psalter), write and sing church services. From 1703 to 1726, 33 people studied here. Of these, 4 people were dismissed from church service, and the remaining 29 entered deacon and clerical positions. 71 Tobolsk school, the church tried to use for the training of missionaries from the children of local peoples. 72 The history of public education in Siberia basically repeated the course of educational work in the central regions of Russia, and school education began with the opening of theological schools.

Important indicators for characterizing the development of culture in Siberia are the reading circle and the appearance of local and imported literature. 73

Little is known about the literature circulating in Siberia in the 16th and early 18th centuries. Basically, this is information about the liturgical books, which were distributed by official means. Each new prison soon acquired a church, priest and books necessary for religious services. For this purpose, the Siberian order bought in Moscow apostles, gospels, psalms, menaea, and missal. 74 In 1639, the first Yakut governors PP Golovin and MB Glebov brought books with them from Moscow "to two prison for two churches." 75 Books of a church service nature with the addition of educational literature (alphabet, grammar) were also brought to Siberia by merchants. 76

The composition of monastic and church libraries in Siberia (there is no information about secular libraries of this period) was limited to church service books, theological and hagiographic writings, with very small splashes of educational literature. So, out of 77 books of Metropolitan Ignatius, only 4 went beyond the purely church literature: "Alphabet" (ABC), 2 medical books and "The History of Syrian". 77

Church literature was also disseminated among the rank and file clergy and among the laity. Along with the theological writings being rewritten, the lives of the saints, which played the role of a kind of fiction, were of particular interest. Of the translations, the lives of Eustathius Placis, Mary of Egypt, George the Victorious, Nicholas of Mirlikisky, Alexei of God the Man prevailed. Among Russian lives, the most widespread were the biographies of the ascetics of the northern region - Novgorod (Barlaam, John), Arkhangelsk (Anthony of Siysk), Solovetsky (Zosima and Savvaty, Metropolitan Philip), Ustyug (Procopius the Ugly). Stories about the shrines of the northern region also prevail among the legends about monasteries and miraculous icons. Apparently, the North Russian literary tradition was closer to the Russian population of Siberia, which was formed mainly by immigrants from the northern regions of the country. It was also supported by the first Siberian archbishops - Cyprian and Nektariy, who brought with them from Novgorod not only books, but also "book people". Among them was Savva Esipov, the author of the Siberian chronicle, rightly called the first Siberian writer.

The composition of historical and geographical literature in Siberia was notable for its considerable diversity. Cosmography and literature of walking prevailed among geographical works (Trifon Korobeinikov, Abbot Daniil, Vasily Gagara). In the group of historical works, attention is drawn to a large number of chronographs, including the chronograph of the late 17th century, rewritten by S.U. Remezov and his elder sons. There were historical stories about the Mamayev massacre, about Temir-Aksak (Tamerlane), about the capture of Constantinople.

The main place is not only in the readable, but also in the Siberian (in origin and subject matter) literature of the 17th and early 18th centuries. occupy the annals. The creativity of the Siberians themselves was especially vividly manifested in them. Developing the traditions of the Old Russian annals, the Siberian chronicles underwent a certain evolution and already in the 17th century. were a kind of historical story "about the capture of Siberia." The first type of Siberian chronicle is usually considered the "Synodik" of the Tobolsk Archbishop Cyprian (about 1622), compiled on the basis of an earlier "Writing how I came to Siberia", created either by direct participants in Yermak's campaign to Siberia, or from their words. From the chronicles of the first half of the 17th century. two are known: Esipovskaya (compiled in 1636 by the Tobolsk clerk Savva Esipov) and Stroganovskaya (written by an unknown author close to the Stroganovs' house). We can talk about the wide distribution of these works already in the 17th century, and the marks on the manuscripts indicate that Siberian works were read not only in Siberia, but also in Russia. 78

At the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th century. in Tobolsk worked one of the outstanding figures of Russian culture S. U. Remezov - a historian, ethnographer, cartographer, artist, architect and builder. Historians consider him the first historian and ethnographer of Siberia, architects - the first Siberian urban planner and founder of the engineering graphics of the Urals and Siberia, cartographers highlight the Remezov stage in the development of Siberian cartography. "Chorographic drawing book", "Drawing book of Siberia", "Siberian history", "Description of the Siberian" peoples and faces of their lands ", design and construction of unique structures of the Tobolsk Kremlin - this is a short list of the main works of this self-taught scientist. 79 His "History of Siberia" (Remezov Chronicle) differs from the previous chronicle stories in the elements of a scientific approach to historical events and the attraction of a new circle of sources, including folk legends and traditions.

In addition to the annals, Siberian literature itself is represented by a number of stories. The earliest work is "The Tale of Tara and Tyumen" (written in 1635-1642, apparently in the city of Tomsk). Its author is an eyewitness to the events described, close to church circles. The story was influenced by Russian military tales of the 16th-17th centuries, written in the spirit of "solemn" literature. 80

In the XVII-early XVIII century. Under the influence of all-Russian legends known in Siberia, a number of stories-legends about local miracles and the lives of the first Siberian saints were created. Thus, the legend of the Abalatskaya icon (1640s) was influenced by the story of the sign of the Novgorod icon of the Mother of God, and the story of the appearance of the icon of the Virgin in Tobolsk (1660s) was written in imitation of the legend of the Kazan icon. 81 Siberian Lives of the end of the 17th century. Basil of Mangazeisky and Simeon of Verkhotursky, reflecting the life and social struggle among the Russian population of Siberia, like most late Russian lives, are not a detailed biography of the saint, as required by the laws of the genre, but a list of their posthumous miracles, which were described by different people and at different times, gradually replenishing an already existing work. 82

The fairly widespread distribution of the Christian legend in Siberia, while this genre in the central regions of Russia has already begun to outlive itself, is explained by the fact that in remote Siberia, the church in the 17th-18th centuries. continued to play a large role, since she actively helped tsarism to enslave the indigenous peoples of Siberia and fought the schism, which at that time was one of the forms of class protest of the peasantry. By the end of the 17th century. Siberia has become one of the main areas for the spread of schismatics, therefore the general ideological direction of Christian legends was the fight against "heresy".

A noticeable role in the literary life of Siberia was played by persons with a pronounced literary talent who temporarily found themselves in Siberia in the service or in exile. So, in Siberia (in 1622-1625 in exile in Tobolsk and in 1629-1630 the governor in Yeniseisk) was Prince S.I.Shakhovskoy, a prominent literary figure of the first half of the 17th century. Probably, during the period of Tobolsk exile, he wrote "The Tale is Known Predictable in the Memory of the Great Martyr Demetrius", dedicated to the murder of Tsarevich Dimitri in Uglich, with a skillfully composed introduction about martyrdom and persecution in general. 83

Tobolsk voivode in 1609-1613 served as Prince I. M. Katyrev-Rostovsky, to whom is attributed "The Tale of the Book of Sowing from Previous Years" (1626) - one of the most striking works about the "Troubles". Some researchers, however, ascribe this work to another Siberian figure - the Tobolsk serviceman S.I.Kubasov, who created a special edition of the Chronograph, which also included this story. 84 About 15 years in Tobolsk lived in exile Yuri Krizhanich, one of the most prominent publicists of the 17th century, who wrote an interesting description of Siberia and a number of philosophical works. Served in exile in Siberia and the largest leader of the schism of the 17th century. - Archpriest Avvakum (from 1653 to 1662). The description of Siberian landscapes (especially the "Baikal Sea") is one of the most colorful places in his "Life" and at the same time the most artistic description of Siberia that has come down to us from the 17th century. The name of Avvakum entered the folklore of the Old Believer population of Transbaikalia, where he is portrayed as a fighter for truth and popular interests. 85

Among the Siberian metropolitans, Ioann Maksimovich (1711 -1715), one of the most prominent representatives of "Baroque" eloquence, whose bearers were pupils of the Kiev-Mohyla Theological Academy, stood out for his literary activity.

The Russian population in Siberia passed on epics, songs and legends brought from Russia from generation to generation. Some of them acquired local features here (ancient Russian heroes hunted animals common in Siberia in the forests, rode through the taiga). The Old Believers' population especially carefully preserved the traditions of Russian folklore, in the wedding and other ceremonies of which the Northern Russian tradition can be most clearly traced.

Since the 17th century. in Siberia, the historical songs "The capture of Kazan", "Kostryuk", songs about Ermak, Stepan Razin were widespread, as evidenced by the Siberian chronicles of that time. The most complete version of the song about Yermak's campaign is in the collection of Kirsha Danilov, compiled by him, a competent singer-buffoon, in 1722-1724. in the Urals. The same collection by K. Danilov included two more songs: "A campaign to the Selenga Cossacks" ("And after a glorious father, beyond the Baikal sea") and "In Siberian Ukraine, in the Daurian side". Particularly interesting is the second song, which tells about the difficulties associated with the development of the Amur region. 86 Siberians composed other songs about local events as well.

The first bearers of the Russian folk theater art in the Trans-Urals were buffoons, who appeared from the northern regions of the Russian state together with the first settlers at the end of the 16th century.

Buffoonery in Russia has been widespread since ancient times. Musicians, songwriters, jugglers, play-mongers were loved by common people. The government and the clergy pursued the buffoons, so they went to the North, and later to Siberia.

When in the middle of the 17th century. The tsarist government, in connection with the aggravation of social contradictions in the country, took new tough measures to exterminate the buffoonery, the latter already had a significant distribution in Siberia. The popularity of folk shows here was largely due to the fact that the broad strata of the population saw in the accusatory satirical performances a lively response to the ugly phenomena of Siberian reality - the arbitrariness of the covetous voivods, unjust judgment, greed and ignorance of the priests.

In 1649, a tsarist charter was received in Siberian cities, prescribing to apply to buffoons the same measures that were taken in 1648 in Moscow and other cities: to destroy domras, gusli and other instruments and punish buffoons with batogs. However, the highest instructions did not help. In 1653, Archbishop Simeon complained to Moscow that in Siberia "all kinds of lawlessness" had multiplied, including "buffoonery and all kinds of demonic games and fist fights and swinging on a swing, and all sorts of other inappropriate things had multiplied." 87

Skomorokhs as figures of the folk theater represented the most diverse areas of folk art. Among them were songwriters, dancers, musicians, jugglers, clowns, animal trainers (bears, dogs), puppeteers. Siberians not only received buffoons well. They themselves loved various games, singing, dancing. The archival documents note their hobby for chess, skiing from the mountains, "with a ball and a sword and grandmothers and towns and shaharda and pile", wrestling, fist fights, horse racing. In the evenings, in the words of the churchmen, "demonic games" were arranged, during which they dressed up in masks, sang songs, danced "and beat them in the palm of your hand." 88

Using the people's love for spectacles, the church contrasted buffoonery performances and folk games with its theater. The appearance of the first church theater in Siberia dates back to the beginning of the 18th century. and is associated with the name of Metropolitan Filofei Leshchinsky. A graduate of the Kiev Theological Academy, he transferred to Siberia many traditions of the old Ukrainian culture, including the theater. Theatrical performances in Tobolsk began almost simultaneously with the opening of the theological school, at least not later than 1705. 89 Teachers and students of the Tobolsk bishop's school acted as actors, and spiritual edifying plays were staged. The scene was set on the square near the bishop's house. At the same time, the clergy strove to attract the largest possible number of people as spectators. 90

Painting in Siberia in the 16th-early 18th centuries was represented mainly by icon painting. It is an incorrectly widespread opinion that the needs of the population of Siberia for icon painting products up to the middle of the 19th century. were almost exclusively satisfied with imported products. 91 Icon painting developed very early in Siberia, and at least from the middle of the 17th century. her needs for icon painting were mainly met by local artists.

The first icon painters in Siberia came from European Russia. So, at the very beginning of the 17th century. the “icon-painter”, Spiridon, the founder of the famous in the XVII-XVIII centuries, moved to Siberia from Ustyug the Great. in Tyumen, a merchant house and the author of the popular Tyumen icon "The Sign of the Mother of God" (Church of the Sign). At the beginning of the 17th century. left European Russia for Siberia, the author of the famous "miraculous" Abalak icon, Protodeacon of the Tobolsk Cathedral Matvey. Not later than the beginning of the 30s of the XVII century. in Tobolsk, under the Siberian archbishop, special workshops appeared for painting icons and teaching children the art of icon painting and woodcarving. 92

Icon painters were also in monasteries and in all more or less large cities of Siberia, at least since the second half of the 17th century. In 1675, the icon painter of the Tobolsk Znamensk Monastery, Miron Kirillov, painted a copy of the Abalak “miraculous” icon for the wife of the Tobolsk governor PM Saltykov. 93 In Tyumen in 1701, icon painters from the service people worked, Maxim Fyodorov Strekalovsky and Lev Murzin. 94 In Yeniseisk in 1669, there were 5 icon painters at the posad (including one student of icon painting). Among them were craftsmen who worked specially for the market. So, two brothers and the father of the Yenisei icon painter Grigory Mikhailov Kondakov, who lived with him in the 50-60s of the 17th century. conducted intensive trade with the money received from the "icon letter" of Gregory. 95

Unlike the Moscow, Fryazh, Stroganov and other styles, Siberia has developed its own style of artistic writing. Siberian icons were not distinguished by high artistic merit, but had their own characteristics that appealed to a wide consumer. 96

In addition to making icons and pictures of religious content (mainly copying from samples), local artists painted the walls of churches, as well as the outer parts of some buildings. In Yeniseisk in the mid-90s of the 17th century. during the reign of the governor MI Rimsky-Korsakov, a state-owned barn was built, in which the monetary and other treasury were kept. On the barn there was a "new guardroom chardak, painted with paints (our detente, - Auth.), On it a double-headed wooden carved eagle." At the same time was built on the voivodship house "a new chardak about two dwellings with railings, the upper dwelling with a tent, round, painted with paints." 97

The local Siberian nobility used the services of painters to decorate their homes. It is known, for example, that large art works were carried out in the house of the first Siberian governor, MP Gagarin. In 1713, 9 local and 3 visiting artists worked for him, including S. U. Remezov, his son Semyon and nephew Afanasy Nikitin Remezov. 98

Icon painters carried out work on painting military equipment, and were also involved in the production of the most important drawings of the area. The Yenisei icon painter Maxim Protopopov Ikonnik, who in 1688 painted 12 baskets for drums with his own colors for the treasury, a few years later “according to the Tsar's decree ... wrote the Irkutsk drawing up to the Kudinskaya Sloboda”, 99 By the end of the 17th century. include works of art by the famous Siberian scientist S. U. Remezov. He richly illustrated his "History of Siberia" and "Drawing Book of Siberia" with drawings in paints, which depict images of various representatives of the aboriginal population of Siberia that are valuable for ethnography. These drawings were then widely used in foreign publications about Siberia, in particular by Witsen in the second edition of his book (1705).

Russian architecture in Siberia until the end of the 17th century. was represented exclusively by wooden architecture, which can be conditionally divided into three groups: serf, church and civil.

The occupation of the new territory was accompanied by the construction of fortified points - forts, inside which were located the main government buildings (voivodship and customs huts, barns, a church, a prison, a guest house). The jail was usually small in size, with a total length of 200-300 fathoms of walls, and was a quadrangle (sometimes a hex or octagon). 100 Either a "standing prison" was built (originally all the forts in Siberia were like that), or from log horizontal double-walled ties. The height of the walls was different. In Yakutsk, the prison wall consisted of 30 crowns, including 20 to the oblom (the upper part protruding forward) and 10 to the oblam. The total height of the wall of the Yakutsk prison was 3 sazhens (about 6.5 m), Irkutsk - 2.5, Ilimsk - 2 sazhens. 101

In the corners and here and there in the walls of the fort there were towers (usually 4, 6 or 8), towering above the level of the walls. Among them were the deaf and the traveler (with gates). The highest towers of the Yakutsk prison had 42 crowns to the oblom and 8 to the oblom. The tower was usually a high frame with a four-, six, or octagonal base (usually a quadrangle). It was accomplished with a hipped roof with a tower. Among the prison towers, the octagonal passable tower of the Irkutsk prison, the top of which had three ledges crowned with a tent, stood out for its architectural sophistication. The balconies above the gates of the passing towers were usually gate churches or chapels and were crowned with a cross and a poppy. Much attention was paid to the decorative side of the construction: high tents on the towers, eagles, chapels.

From the monuments of wooden fortress architecture in Siberia, two turrets of the Bratsk fortress (1654), the fortress Spasskaya tower in Ilimsk (XVII century), the tower of the Yakutsk fortress (1683), the Velskaya "watchtower" tower (early XVIII century) have come down to us. ).

In Siberian church architecture of the 16th-early 18th centuries. there were two main groups of temples.

The first is represented by the most ancient and simplest type of church buildings of Northern Russian origin, the so-called Kletsky temple. The Vvedenskaya Church in Ilimsk (1673) was a typical example of this type of church architecture. It consisted of two log cabins placed side by side, one of which (the eastern one) is slightly higher than the other. Each log house was covered with a gable roof. On the roof of the eastern frame (cage) there was a small quadrangle covered with a "barrel" turned across the main axis of the building. The barrel carried on round necks two "bulbous" domes covered with scales. Churches of this type were common in many regions of Siberia.

Another type of Old Russian buildings that took root in Siberia was the tent-roofed church. It usually consisted of an extensive four- or

octahedron, ending at the top with an octahedral pyramid in the form of a tent. The tent was crowned with a small onion-shaped dome. The Verkholensk Epiphany (1661), Irkutsk Spasskaya (1684) and other churches had hipped-roof bell towers.

In addition, in Siberia there were widespread, as already noted, "gate" churches that stood above the prison and monastery gates. Typical for this species is the gate church in Kirensk (1693).

Of great interest are the church coverings, which have purely national Russian architectural motives: barrels, cubes, poppies. The Kazan Church in Ilimsk, covered with a “barrel” and a “poppy”, has survived to this day. 102

One curious feature of church churches in Siberia should be noted: under them there were usually shops that the churchmen rented out.

Civil wooden architecture of Siberia, XVI-XVIII centuries. was distinguished by great simplicity and severity. Houses and huts of both village and city dwellers were built from large logs, not less than 35-40 cm thick, they were cut with an ax in a "burial" with a recess in the upper log. The roof was mostly high, gable. Above, at the junction of the slopes, the ends of the boards were overlapped with a thick log hollowed out from the bottom - "oohlupny" ("helom", "ridge"). With his weight, he pressed the entire roof structure, giving it the necessary strength. The end of the "booze" usually protruded forward and was sometimes decoratively processed.

The windows in the houses were small, 50-70 cm high, square and sometimes round; mica was inserted into them, which was mined in Siberia in sufficient quantities. The window frame was usually wooden, sometimes iron. In many houses of Siberians in the 17th century. the stoves were fired “on white” (they had brick outlet pipes). Already at this time, the Russian stove was widespread in Siberia, the most efficient of the heating systems that existed at that time (the efficiency of such a stove was 25-30%, with 5-10% in Western European fireplaces). 103

Inside the hut there was usually a rectangular table; benches were located along the walls, and at the top there were shelves for household needs; under the ceiling above the front door, a special flooring was arranged - "polati", where they slept in the winter.

(Drawing of a wooden church in the Russian settlement of Zashiversk (Yakutia), 17th century)

Siberian cities, founded in the 16th-18th centuries, were usually built as a prison, located on a high bank, around which the settlement was grouped. The architectural appearance of the Siberian city was not much different from the North Russian one. The same change in styles was observed in it as in Moscow, only it happened with some delay - the old hipped-roof bell towers and wooden houses were built until the second half of the 18th century. and later, and the baroque forms were used until the 30s of the XIX century.

Among the city buildings, customs and clerks, guest houses, and voivodship houses stood out somewhat in terms of size and architectural design. The provincial house usually had two or three floors in its various parts. According to the description of 1697, the voivodeship house in Yeniseisk was a three-story building: the first floor consisted of "residential subcases" on which "twins" stood; above it towered a "tower", "in front of the tower a canopy, and an attic, and an old toppled about four lives." In the courtyard there was a voivodship bathhouse ("soap-house"), which was heated "in white", and its stove was even with a tiled finish. 104

Stone construction began in Siberia at the end of the 17th century. One of the first was the Sofia courtyard in Tobolsk (1683-1688). It was a whole complex - a large cathedral, a bell tower and a fortress wall with towers. 105 At the end of the XVII century. in order to combat the very frequent fires in Siberian cities, it was ordered to build all government buildings of stone. But due to the lack of "stone craftsmen", and due to a lack of forces and means, the stone structure could be deployed only at the beginning of the 18th century. and only in two cities - Verkhoturye and Tobolsk. In other places at this time they were limited to the construction of separate buildings, for example, in Tyumen - state barns with a church above them (1700-1704). 106

In 1697, S.U. Remezov was entrusted with drawing up a project and an estimate for a new stone city in Tobolsk. In June 1698 he was summoned to Moscow to defend his project. Here Remezov was sent to the Armory for training in "stone building", after which he was put in charge of the entire construction business in Tobolsk, "in order for him to make all sorts of drawings for the custom, and how to beat piles and knead clay, and lime and stone on the mountain and to drag in water and other supplies, and about

in Moscow in the Siberian order it is said at length and quite enough, and mill wheels were shown to him as an example in Moscow. " Remezov "as an example" was also given "the structure of the printed book of Fryazhskaya". 107

The Remezovs' "Service Drawing Book" contains, among other materials, projects of buildings in Tobolsk and is one of the first Russian manuals on architecture. 108

Some stone buildings of this time were made in the spirit of the pre-Petrine hipped-roof style. Among them are the former Gostiny Dvor and two turrets with parts of the northern wall in Tobolsk and several tent bell towers in Tobolsk, Tyumen, Yeniseisk, Tara. Most of the stone buildings: living quarters, administrative buildings, fortress buildings, dwelling houses - were built in the new style of Moscow or Ukrainian baroque. 109

Russian villages with characteristic silhouettes of high roofs, ending with "skates", traditional fortress towers, churches with their "barrels" and "poppies", and finally, a stone structure according to the experience of Moscow and other cities - all these are examples of Russian national architecture, showing the inextricable connection of architecture center and distant Siberian outskirts of Russia.

The life of Russian settlers in Siberia was organized "according to Russian custom." Instead of yurts, semi-dugouts and primitive wooden dwellings of the aboriginal inhabitants of the region, they built houses with a wooden floor, with stoves and mica windows. Since there was a lot of forests and land in Siberia, houses were built larger than in the European part of the country. 110 The bathhouse was a characteristic feature of the Russian life of Siberians. She, as in Russia, was used not only for sanitary and hygienic, but also for medicinal purposes.

But the first Russian settlers in Siberia, due to the unusually harsh climatic conditions and frequent hunger strikes, suffered greatly from scurvy, smallpox, various "fevers" and other diseases, which, due to the lack of qualified assistance, often took on an epidemic character. 111

Until the beginning of the 18th century. doctors in Siberia were only part of large military expeditions sent directly by the central government, in official embassies in China and at the court of the Tobolsk governors. So, in 1702, a German doctor Gottfried Georgy Herurgus lived with the Tobolsk governor M. Ya. Cherkassky. 112

At the beginning of the 18th century, when the positions of doctors and hospitals began to be introduced in the army and navy, doctors and hospitals appeared in the military garrisons of Siberia. The largest hospitals were opened in 1720 in the Omsk, Semipalatinsk and Ust-Kamenogorsk fortresses. This had important consequences. Already at the beginning of the XVIII century. healers of the fortresses of the Irtysh line began a sanitary and hygienic study of the area, including the study of diseases common among the indigenous inhabitants of the region 113

However, the overwhelming mass of the population of Siberia and at the beginning of the XVIII century. she did not receive medical assistance from the state. The population was treated with folk remedies, primarily with medicinal herbs. In the XVII century. Russians in Siberia knew and widely used the medicinal properties of St. John's wort, pine needles, wild garlic, nine buds, birch buds, raspberries, wild rose, henbane, "deciduous lip" and other plants. From the Chinese, they learned about the medicinal properties of rhubarb, and from the ancestors of the Khakass, “wolf root”. In addition, they used medicines of animal (musk) and mineral ("stone oil") origin, as well as the medicinal properties of mineral water springs. Moscow authorities in the 17th century and later, in search of new medicines, they repeatedly turned their eyes to Siberia and demanded that local governors search, procure and deliver medicinal plants to Moscow. Information about the medicinal properties of some of them in Moscow was first obtained from Siberians (for example, about St. John's wort in the early 30s of the 17th century). Sometimes Siberian herbalists were summoned to work in Moscow. 114 Siberians in the 16th and early 18th centuries. undoubtedly significantly enriched the Russian folk pharmacopoeia.

The Russian population brought to Siberia not only their forms of social structure and labor organization, but also their national culture, which, adapting to local conditions, continued to develop as an integral part of the general Russian culture.

114 E. D. Petryaev. Researchers and writers of the old Transbaikalia, pp. 30-41; N.N. Ogloblin. Household features of the 17th century. Russian antiquity, 1892, No. 10, p. 165; TsGADA, SP, stlb. 49, l. 414; op. 4, No. 169, fol. 1.

56 See: M.G. Novlyanskaya. Philip Johann Stralenberg. His work on the exploration of Siberia. M.-L., 1966.

57 Ph. I. Strahlenberg. Das nord- und ostliche Theil von Europa und Asia ... Stockholm. 1730. This book was translated into English in 1738, into French in 1757, and into Spanish in 1780.

58 In accordance with the structure of the volume in the chapters on the culture and study of Siberia, general issues of the cultural development of the region and the culture of the Russian population are considered, and the culture of aboriginal peoples is covered in the sections devoted to the peculiarities of their historical development (see pp. 93-108, 285-299, 417-433).

59 M.K. Azadovsky. Essays on the literature and culture of Siberia IRKUTSK 1947 pp. 34-38; The peoples of Siberia. M.-L., 1956, pp. 210, 211.

60 V. K. Andrievich. History of Siberia, part IL SPb., 1889, p. 402.

61 N.N. Ogloblin 1) Book market in Yeniseisk in the 17th century. Bibliographer 1888, No. 7-8, pp. 282-284; 2) from archival trivia of the 17th century. Bibliographer, 1890, Nos. 2,5-6; TsGADA, SP, book. 44, sheet l. 137.183.184.248.275.

62 TsGADA, SP, op. 5, no. 717, ll. 1-2 vol.

63 N.N. Ogloblin. Review of columns and books of the Siberian order, part 1, M, 1895, p. 220.

64 CHOIDR 1891 kn. 1, dep. V;

65 N. S. Yurtsovsky. Essays on the history of education in Siberia. Novo-Nikolaevsk, 1923, p. 9.

66 TsGADA, SP, book 1350, ll. 500-501.

67 Ibid, fol. 500-500 rpm

68 Ibid., Op. 5, No. 608, fol. 1.

69 N. N. Ogloblin. Household features of the beginning of the 18th century. CHOIDR, 1904, book. 1, dep. 3, Blend, pp. 15-16.

70 TsGADA, SP, book. 1350, l. 502.

71 P. Pekarsky. An introduction to the history of enlightenment in Russia in the 18th century. SPb., 1862, p. 120.

72 A.G. Bazanov. Essays on the history of missionary schools in the Far North (Tobolsk North). L., 1936, p. 22-24.

73 See: E. K. Romodanovskaya. About the reading circle of Siberians in the 17th-18th centuries. in connection with the problem of studying regional literatures. Studies in Language and Folklore, vol. 1, Novosibirsk, 1965, pp. 223-254.

74 N.N. Ogloblin. From archival trivia of the 17th century, Nos. 2, 5-6.

75 TsGADA, SP, stlb. 75, ll. 49, 75, 95.

76 N.N. Ogloblin. Book market in Yeniseisk in the 17th century, pp. 282-284.

77 N.N. Ogloblin. Library of the Siberian Metropolitan Ignatius, 1700 St. Petersburg. 1893, pp. 3-5.

78 E. K. Romodanovskaya. About the reading circle of Siberians in the 17th-18th centuries. pp. 236-237.

79 A.I. Andreev. Essays on the study of sources in Siberia, vol. 1, ch. 2, 4, 8; A. A. Goldenberg. Semyon Ulyanovich Remezov; E.I.Dergacheva-Skop. From the history of literature of the Urals and Siberia of the 17th century. Sverdlovsk, 1965.

80 M.N.Speransky. A story about the cities of Tara and Tyumen. Tr. Commission on Old Russian Literature of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, vol. I, L., 1932, pp. 13-32.

81 E. K. Romodanovskaya. About the reading circle of Siberians in the 17th-18th centuries. p. 240.

82 S. V. Bakhrushin. The Legend of Vasily of Mangazey. Scientific works, vol. III, part 1, M., 1955, p. 331-354.

83 History of Russian Literature, vol. II, part 2. Moscow-Leningrad, 1948, p. 60; K. Gazenwinkel. Materials for the reference and bibliographic dictionary of Siberian figures. Annually. Tobolsk, lips. Museum, vol. 1, Tobolsk, 1893, pp. 79, 80.

84 V. S. Ikonnikov. Experience of Russian historiography, vol. 2, part 2. Kiev, 1908, p. 1378, 1379; History of Russian Literature, vol. II, part 2, pp. 61-64; S. F Platonov. Old doubts. Collection of articles in honor of M. K. Lyubavsky, M., A. Stavrovich. Sergey Kubasov and the Stroganov Chronicle. Collection of articles on Russian history dedicated to S.F. Platonov, Pr., 1922, pp. 285-293.

85 L E Eliasov. Protopop Avvakum in the oral legends of Transbaikalia. TODRL, vol. XVIII, M.-L., 1962, pp. 351-363.

86 A.A. Gorelov. 1) Folk songs about Ermak. Abstract of the thesis. Cand. diss. L., 1 p. 7, 8; 2) Who was the author of the collection "Ancient Russian Poems" Russian folklore. Materials and research, vol. VII. M.-L., 1962, pp. 293-312; vol. I. M., 1929, p. 427.

87 TsGADA, SP, stlb. 400, pp. 410, 411; see also: AI, vol. IV, St. Petersburg, 1842, p. 125.

88 TsGADA, SP, stlb. 400, pp. 1-7.

89 A.I.Sulotsky. Seminar theater in the old days in Tobolsk. CHOIDR, 1870, book. 2, pp. 153-157.

90 P. G. Malyarevsky. Essay from the history of theatrical culture of Siberia. Irkutsk, 1957, pp. 12-18; B. Zherebtsov. Theater in old Siberia (a page from the history of Russian provincial theater of the 18th-19th centuries). Zap. State inst. theatrical art named after Lunacharsky, M.-L., 1940, pp. 120, 121, 130.

91 SSE, vol. I, p. 933.

92 A.I.Sulotsky. Historical information about icon painting in Siberia. Tobolsk Provincial Gazette, 1871, No. 17, pp. 97, 98.

93 A.I.Sulotsky. Historical information about icon painting in Siberia, p. 98.

94 N.N. Ogloblin. Review of columns and books of the Siberian order, part 1, p. 359.

95 A. N. Kopylov. Russians on the Yenisei in the 17th century, pp. 159-162.

96 G. Rovinsky. History of Russian icon painting. Notes of the Archaeological Society, vol. VIII, 1836, p. 27.

97 TsGADA, SP, book. 1148. ll. 73, 79 about.

98 Ibid, op. 5, no. 2251, ll. 230, 389.

99 Ibid. book 951, l. 6vol., Stlb. 1352, l. 73a.

100 M.K. Odintsova. From the history of Russian wooden architecture in Eastern Siberia (XVII century). Irkutsk, 1958, p. 46; V.I. Kochedamov. Construction of Tyumen in the XVI-XVIII centuries. Annually. Tyumensk. region ethnographer. Museum, vol. III, Tyumen, 1963, pp. 86, 87; TsGADA, SP, stlb. 25, ll. 41, 42.

101 M.K. Odintsova. From the history of Russian wooden architecture in Eastern Siberia, p. 45.

102 Ibid., Pp. 55-56.

103 Ibid., Pp. 18, 24-25.

104 TsGADA, SP, book. 1148, ll. 79-81.

105 V.I. Kochedamov. 1) Construction of Tyumen in the XVI-XVIII centuries, p. 92; 2) Tobolsk (how the city grew and was built). Tyumen, 1963, pp. 25-34.

106 V.I.Kochedamov. Construction of Tyumen in the XVI-XVIII centuries, p. 93.

107 A.I. Andreev. Essays on the study of sources in Siberia, vol. 1, pp. 108, 109.

108 History of European art history from antiquity to the end of the 18th century. M., 1963, p. 349.

109 V.I.Kochedamov. Construction of Tyumen in the XVI-XVIII centuries, pp. 97, 98.

110 V. A. Alexandrov. The Russian population of Siberia in the 17th-early 18th centuries. p. 162-168; M.K. Odintsov. From the history of Russian wooden architecture in Eastern Siberia, pp. 18-22.

111 E. D. Petryaev. Researchers and writers of the old Transbaikalia. Chita, 1954, p. 38.

112 N.N. Ogloblin. Household features of the early 18th century, p. 16.

113 B. N. P a l c and n. A brief outline of the history of the emergence of medical institutions in the Irtysh and Gorny Altai regions in the 18th century. Healthcare of Kazakhstan, Alma-Ata, 1954, No. 3, p. 31, 32.

Cultural development of siberia in the era of catherine ii

As a manuscript

KHAIT Nadezhda Leonidovna

CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF SIBERIA IN THE EPOCH OF CATHERINE II

Specialty 07.00.02. - National history

dissertation for a scientific degree

candidate of historical sciences

Krasnoyarsk - 2007

The work was carried out at the Department of Russian History of the State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Siberian Federal University"

Scientific adviser, Candidate of Historical Sciences,

Professor I.A. Pryadko

Official opponents Doctor of Historical Sciences,

Professor G.F. Bykonya,

Candidate of Historical Sciences,

assistant professor A.V. Lonin

Leading organization Kemerovo State

university of culture

The defense will take place on November 9, 2007 at 10 o'clock at a meeting of the Dissertation Council D. 212. 097. 01. on the defense of dissertations for the degree of Doctor of Historical Sciences at the Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical University named after V.P. Astafiev at the address: 660077, Krasnoyarsk, st. Vzletnaya, 20, Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical University named after V.P. Astafieva, Faculty of History, room 2-21.

The dissertation can be found in the reading room of the scientific library of the Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical University named after V.P. Astafieva.

Scientific secretary candidate of historical

dissertation sciences, associate professor L.E. Mezite

I. General characteristics of work

Relevance of the topic... At present, interest in the history of cultural development has increased significantly, since culture is a qualitative characteristic of society. Culture is recognized as one of the important regulators of social life, as well as a necessary condition for the development of the individual as a subject of versatile social activity.

The growth of interest in the study of various aspects of culture was characteristic of the entire world science of the twentieth century, and especially intensified in recent decades. This is due to the fact that the history of the culture of the multinational Russian people remains poorly studied in our country. This is especially true of the history of regional culture, which is an organic part of the all-Russian one, but at the same time retains its originality. Such regions include Siberia, which for a long time was considered only as a “raw material appendage” of Russia. That is why socio-economic and political aspects prevail in works on the history of Siberia, while the issues of cultural development, the formation of the spirituality of the people remain practically unexplored. Without knowledge of the basic elements of Russian culture, it is impossible to understand social history, cultural relationships with neighbors, the formation and spread of new features in Russian society. Therefore, the topic chosen for the dissertation research seems relevant. The relevance of this topic is also explained by the importance of the implementation of cultural ties for the full existence of any national culture. The perception of global spiritual values is important for the further successful development of each nation's own culture. The cultural life of Siberia in the 2nd half of the 18th century. characterizes not only secularism, the growing importance of the human person, but also the expansion of intercultural contacts. Therefore, the study of such an experience is especially relevant today.

The degree of knowledge of the problem. The chosen topic has never been the subject of special study, although some of its aspects were covered at different times. At the first stage of the study, relating to the pre-revolutionary period, the study of the culture of Siberia in the 18th century. was in its infancy.

In the late XIX - early XX centuries. on the pages of Siberian periodicals, fragmentarily different aspects of cultural development in the period of interest to us begin to be considered. These are the publications of S.S. Shashkov, I. Malinovsky, V.A. Zagorsky, V.A. Batting, in which some regions of Siberia were studied separately, which did not allow seeing the general picture of the development of the cultural sphere. The disadvantage of these works is that they were published without references to archival sources, which were undoubtedly used. All these authors also noted the extremely low level of Siberian culture - the astonishing ignorance of the population, the complete absence of literacy, the absence of mail, books, magazines, and newspapers. It was especially emphasized that the population of Siberia - simple Cossacks, service people, exiled criminals, fugitive serfs, self-serving industrialists and merchants - could not be the conductors of culture.

Thus, the fragmentary, fragmentary study of Siberian culture, including the culture of Catherine's era, largely predetermined the extremely negative assessments of the cultural level in Siberia during the reign of Catherine II.

The second stage of the study refers to the Soviet era. At this time, works appeared in which an attempt was made to analyze certain areas of cultural development, including in the period of interest to us. The first major research on one of the sections of the culture of pre-revolutionary Siberia was the work of N.S. Yurtsovsky "Essays on the history of education in Siberia", published in 1923 in Novonikolaevsk. This is a summary essay on the history of enlightenment in Siberia. In particular, the author pays attention to the organization of education in Siberia in the second half of the 18th century, and changes in it in connection with the school reform of Catherine II. After analyzing the state of Siberian education before and after the reform, the author came to the conclusion that it was inherently sterile, the main and small public schools established by the empress did not fulfill their task of enlightening Siberian society.

In 1924 D.A. Boldyrev-Kazarin published a work dedicated to the applied arts of the Russian population of Siberia - peasant painting, ornament, woodcarving, sculpture. At the same time, he was the first to substantiate the selection of a special style in architecture - the Siberian Baroque.

One of the most significant in the study of Russian culture in pre-revolutionary Siberia was, of course, the publication in 1947 of the book by M. K. Azadovsky "Essays on the Literature and Culture of Siberia." The author of this work, along with a description of Siberian literature, was the first Soviet researcher to raise the question of the general nature and level of cultural development of Siberia in comparison with the European part of the country and made an attempt to give a general description of the cultural life of the region, highlighting the regional specifics (Irkutsk, Tobolsk), without deepening into a detailed examination of individual aspects of culture. In general, M.K. Azadovsky very positively assessed the state of culture in the 18th century. The main disadvantage of the work is the lack of links to archival materials.

Following the publication of the book by M.K. Azadovsky in the 1940s - early 1960s. published a series of works devoted to the study of individual aspects of the cultural past of Siberia. Thus, the history of theater in Siberia was covered in the works of P.G. Malyarevsky, S.G. Landau, B. Zherebtsova. These works contain mostly negative assessments of the development of theatrical business in Siberia during the Age of Enlightenment. The first Soviet researcher to address this topic was B. Zherebtsov, who in 1940 published his work "Theater in Old Siberia". And although he used materials already published earlier, this was the first systematic study in this direction in Soviet historiography. His studies in theater were further continued by S.G. Landau and P.G. Malyarevsky, whose works "From the History of the Omsk Drama Theater" and "Essay on the History of the Theatrical Culture of Siberia" were published in 1951 and 1957. distracting the attention of the population from acute political issues.

Certain issues of the literary work of Siberians, the characteristics of their reading interests and the development of librarianship were considered in the 1930s-60s. In 1965, G. Kungurov, in contrast to the authors of the second half of the 19th century, gave a very positive assessment of the activities of Siberian writers in the Catherine's era, and was the first to analyze the materials of periodicals of that time.

During the Soviet era, much attention was paid to the study of Siberian architecture. 1950-1953 with two large monographs on Russian folk architecture in Siberia, E.A. Ashchepkov. The author mainly examines the monuments of Russian architecture in Siberia at the end of the 18th century. and later periods. At the same time, he gives a characteristic of the general line of change in architectural styles, planning and development of cities and villages, specific features of the development of Russian architecture in Siberia.

This was followed by a number of works on the history of Siberian architecture with a specific analysis of its individual historical stages in a particular region of Siberia, as well as on the work of local architects. With regard to the period under study, from these works, one can note the studies of B.I. Ogly dedicated to the architecture of Irkutsk in the 18th - 19th centuries. (1958), V.I. Kochedamova (1963), D.I. Kopylova (1975), O.N. Vilkov (1977) on the architecture of Tobolsk and Tyumen.

In the 70s - early 80s. XX century scientists emphasized the importance of studying culture as an integral part of historical development. During this period, many different works were published on the history of the culture of pre-revolutionary Russia, including the regtone we are studying.

The works of E.K. Romodanovskaya, published in the mid-1960s. continued to study the reading circle of Siberians. In the article "New materials on the history of Siberian literature of the 18th century", published in 1965, the author gives examples of satirical epigrams and plays that were widespread in Siberia during the reign of Catherine II. E.K. Romodanovskaya noted that Siberians were familiar with the literature that was spread in the European part of Russia.

The issues of the cultural development of our region during the reign of Catherine II were summarized by A.N. Kopylov in one of the chapters of the second volume of a 5-volume study on the history of Siberia, edited by A.P. Okladnikov, published in Leningrad in 1968. The author of the chapter examined the history of education and Russian artistic culture in combination with socio-economic and political factors of social development.

Of the entire set of publications devoted to the cultural development of Siberia, it is worth highlighting the works of A.N. Kopylova. The monograph "Culture of the Russian population of Siberia in the 17th - early 19th centuries", which was published in 1968, emphasizes that before the revolution, the study of the culture of Siberia in the 17th - 18th centuries. was in its infancy. Studies on certain issues of the culture of the region in the form of essays, messages and notes, published in various pre-revolutionary publications, dealt mainly with private issues. The author emphasized that in journalism and literary works Siberia, for various reasons, was often portrayed as "impenetrable wilderness, the land of savagery and ignorance."

Of course, this and other works by the author contain generally accepted assessments characteristic of the Soviet era. So, A.N. Kopylov noted that tsarism stifled any progressive thought in Russia and hindered the development of the masses, which was especially pronounced in Siberia, which was viewed as a source of enrichment for the tsarist treasury and a place of exile for political prisoners and criminals. In the work "Essays on the cultural life of Siberia in the 17th - early 19th centuries", published in Novosibirsk in 1974, A.N. Kopylov gave a generalizing description of different areas of the culture of feudal Siberia. He noted, in particular, that architectural creativity, fine and theatrical art, school education and other branches of Siberian culture were formed under the influence of various elements of the North Russian, Central Russian and Ukrainian culture. A.N. Kopylov was one of the first researchers to emphasize the importance of a powerful impact on the Siberian culture of the center of the country.

In the work of G.F. Bykoni, dedicated to the Russian non-taxable population of Eastern Siberia in the 18th - early 19th centuries, published in 1985, archival information about the organization of public schools and the development of librarianship in the region was published. This work was continued by further study and publication of archival sources on the history of the culture of Krasnoyarsk, provided with detailed comments in the work "City near Krasny Yar" (1986).

Valuable material is contained in a series of monographs by N.A. Minenko, published in the 1980s - early 90s, dedicated to the history of the Russian peasant family. They deal with issues of labor education, education of the peasantry, the role of the church in the cultural life and everyday life of the village. In the work "The history of culture of the Russian peasantry in Siberia" (1986) N.А. Minenko analyzed the literacy level of Siberian peasants. In particular, she noted that the enrollment in the Schools, which opened by decree of Catherine II, was not limited by the class framework, and therefore there were cases of enrollment in the Schools of peasants, although not in a large volume.

Thus, the second stage of the study is characterized by a large number of publications devoted to various aspects of the cultural development of Siberia. The disadvantage of this period is the predominance of the economic factor in the study of the cultural past.

At the third, modern stage of research, not only the range of problems under consideration in the history of Russian culture expands, but also new conceptual approaches appear in historical research. The appeal of historians to the categorical apparatus of social and social sciences, such as culturology, philosophy, ethnology, historical psychology and anthropology, is the most important methodological change in historical science.

The problem of studying Siberian architecture is still popular. In the works of T.M. Stepanskaya, N.I. Lebedeva, K. Yu. Shumova, G.F. Bykoni, D. Ya. Rezun, L.M. Dameshek examines the history of the development of cities in Western and Eastern Siberia: Barnaul, Omsk, Irkutsk, Yeniseisk, Krasnoyarsk. The authors highlighted the specifics of architectural structures characteristic of different urban centers of Siberia, paid attention to the cult and civil buildings of cities, the change in architectural styles in the 18th century.

Considerable attention is paid to the study of the educational sphere. So, in 1997-2003. two volumes of the Reader on the history of the development of schools in the Tobolsk province and an annotated index of literature on the public education of the Tyumen region of the 18th-20th centuries were published. edited by Yu.P. Pribylsky. In 2004, a work by I. Cherkazyanova, dedicated to the school education of Russian Germans and the problem of the development and preservation of the German school in Siberia in the 18th - 20th centuries, was published in St. Petersburg. The first chapter of this work examines the formation of the first German schools in Siberia and the role of the German clergy in organizing the education of Siberians.

The only work examining the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment on the formation of the educational system of Western Siberia in the 2nd half of the 18th century. is L.V. Nechayeva, protected in 2004 in Tobolsk.

Thus, the absence of works studying the cultural development of Siberia during the reign of Catherine II and the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment on it made it possible to formulate goal of the work... It consists in the study of the cultural development of the Siberian region in the context of the implementation of the policy of enlightened absolutism. Based on the goal, the following are set tasks:

Consider the conditions for the development of the culture of Siberia during the reign of Catherine II.
To reveal the qualitative changes in the educational, cultural and leisure spheres that took place in Siberia during the reign of Catherine II.
Reveal the degree of influence of the ideas of enlightenment on the elite (noble) and mass (peasant) culture, show changes in the relationship between traditional and innovative elements of culture in the region.
Determine to what extent the material base of the cultural sphere contributed to its development.

As object research was the cultural development of Siberia, by which we mean, first of all, two interconnected layers of culture characteristic of the period under study: the noble (or secular) layer and the culture of the bulk of the population - (or religious, peasant).

Subject studies were the changes that took place in the cultural sphere under the influence of the ideas of enlightened absolutism and their influence on various layers of Siberian society.

Chronological framework cover the period 1762-1796. - the reign of Catherine II, the time of the implementation of the policy of enlightened absolutism. This is the time of transition from the traditional way of life to a new, European way of life, the time of the flourishing of the culture of the Enlightenment in Russia.

Territorial scope: As a result of the reform of local government, the government sequentially in 1782 and 1783. created the Tobolsk, Irkutsk and Kolyvan governorship in Siberia. Western Siberia covered two out of three governorships - Tobolsk and part of Kolyvanskiy. Eastern Siberia included the Irkutsk governorship and part of the Kolyvansky. In this study, priority is given to the culture of the Russian population, without analyzing the cultural life of the indigenous peoples of Siberia. The specificity of the region was in the presence of a huge economic potential, and its peripherality in relation to the European part of the country, with special climatic and socio-cultural conditions.

Research methodology... Important for this research is the civilizational approach, in which mentality, spirituality, interaction with other cultures are recognized as the main structural elements of civilization. In the XVIII century. Russian life was forcibly rebuilt in a European manner. This process proceeded gradually, capturing at first only the upper layers, but little by little this change in Russian life began to spread in breadth and in depth.

The study of changes in the cultural life of Siberia during the reign of Catherine II was carried out from the standpoint of an anthropocentric approach, which involves the study of the interests, needs, actions of people, the influence of culture on their daily life. This approach was used to study the cultural needs and cultural and leisure activities of the Siberian population. The application of the sociocultural approach made it possible to pay attention to changes in values, cultural needs of Siberians, which took place under the influence of changes in society.

The dissertation also applied the methodology of the dialogue of cultures. With regard to the issue we are considering, there was a situation when the culture of Siberia came into contact with the European culture dominating in central Russia, while preserving its originality and taking in the best that the cultures of other peoples had accumulated.

The research was based on the general scientific principles of historicism and objectivity. The use of the first of them made it possible to consider the object of study in all its diversity and contradictions. The principle of objectivity made it possible to carry out a comprehensive and critical analysis of events and phenomena. Also, when writing the dissertation, comparative, logical, systemic methods were used, which made it possible to consider the cultural development of Siberia as a single process.

Source base the research comprised unpublished (archival) documents and published materials.

The first group of sources was made up of archival documents. We studied materials from 11 funds of the Siberian archives: the Tobolsk branch of the State Archives of the Tyumen Region (TF GATO), the Archival Agency of the Krasnoyarsk Territory Administration (AAAKK), the State Archives of the Irkutsk Region (GAIO). One of the main sources for the development of the topic of this research was the materials stored in the TF GATO. Our attention was drawn to the fund of the Tobolsk Spiritual Consistory (F. 156), which contains information about the life and culture of the population. It was to the Tobolsk spiritual consistory that the main decrees, reports, promemories, criminal cases flocked from all over Siberia, most of which relate to the religious, cultural, leisure, everyday, educational spheres of Siberian life. This made it possible to judge the everyday life of different strata of the urban and rural population: noblemen, officials, peasants, foreigners, Old Believers, etc. The Fund of the Tobolsk Governor's Office (F. 341) also contains a number of materials on the problem under study. These are mainly cases pursuant to official government decrees. The fund of the Tobolsk order of public charity (F. I-355), which was in charge of schools, public institutions, hospitals, contains cases on the receipt of funds from the sale of books published in the Tobolsk printing house, estimates for the repair of the theater and other public institutions of the city. The fund contains detailed information on school reform and the organization of the learning process in Siberian small public schools. Fund 661 (Decrees of the Tobolsk police chief's office) contains decrees on the improvement of Tobolsk. The AAACK studied the materials of the city hall fund (F. 122). Of interest were the minutes of meetings of the town hall, as well as cases on the collection of fines from peasants for evading confession and communion. The funds of the Tobolsk and Irkutsk spiritual consistories, stored in the AAAKK (F. 812, 813), contain important materials for us about the construction of churches, the state of affairs in parishes on the subject of superstitions. The funds of the Turukhansk Trinity and Spassky Monasteries (F. 594, 258) include materials on various aspects of culture - chronicle writing, book distribution. At GAIO, we were primarily interested in the fund of the Irkutsk Spiritual Consistory (F. 50), which also contains information about the life and culture of the Siberian population.

Official documents were an important source. These are, first of all, the decrees of Catherine II in the field of culture, the provisions of which extended to the territory of Siberia. In addition, we found some information about the regulation of public life and control over the implementation of religious norms in the Charter of the Deanery (police charter) of Catherine II, published in 1782.

A significant body of material has been taken from published sources. First of all, this is the information contained in the periodicals of Siberia in the 80s - 90s. XVIII century The study of the materials of the magazines "Irtysh turning into Ippokrenu" and "Library scientist, historical, economic ..." allows us to judge the development of some aspects of cultural and leisure activities of Siberian residents, about the topical issues at that time that interested readers, and were raised on the pages of publications.

Interesting information is contained in the notes of Russian and foreign subjects who visited Siberia for various purposes. These materials contain information about everyday life, cultural appearance of Siberian cities and population. An interesting source was the published letters of A.N. Radishchev from Tobolsk, addressed to A.R. Vorontsov. They contain curious observations and assessments of the author concerning Siberian life and culture. From the travel observations of foreign citizens, it is worth highlighting the notes of E. Laxman, P. Pallas, Chapp d'Otrosh, August Kotzebue, Johann Ludwig Wagner. An interesting source was "Antidote", the authorship of which is not without reason attributed to Catherine II.

Of interest were the published documents of the Siberian archives contained in the Krasnoyarsk editions compiled by G.F. Bykonei, L.P. Shorokhov, G.L. Ruksha. In addition, some published documents and materials of the State Archives of the Altai Territory were taken from the textbook on regional studies "Culture in Altai in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries." 1999 year

The set of sources made it possible to analyze the cultural life of Siberia during the reign of Catherine II.

Scientific novelty of work lies in the fact that for the first time the object of special historical research was changes in the culture of the Siberian region during the implementation of the policy of enlightened absolutism of Catherine II. A culturological approach was used to highlight this topic. New archival materials have been introduced into scientific circulation.

The practical significance of the work. Generalizations and factual material of the dissertation can be used in the creation of generalizing works on the history of Siberia, in educational courses on local history, museum practice.

Work structure. The dissertation of 173 pages consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion, notes, a list of sources and literature, numbering 119 positions.

II. The main content of the work

In the introduction the relevance of the topic is substantiated, the degree of its study is revealed, the goals and objectives, the object and subject of research, its chronological and territorial framework are determined, the methodology, source base, scientific novelty and practical significance of the work are characterized. The main provisions of this work are published in the abstracts of scientific conferences on the history of culture of Siberia.

Chapter one"Conditions for cultural development in Siberia during the reign of Catherine II" consists of three sections. The first paragraph "Government policy in the field of culture" characterizes the essence of the policy of enlightened absolutism, as well as the conditions for its implementation in Siberia.

Enlightened absolutism means not only political actions, but also those measures that were taken by the empress and were aimed at improving the human personality. Thanks to these measures, it was possible to achieve outstanding cultural achievements associated with the spread of the ideas of the Enlightenment in Russia in the 2nd half of the 18th century.

Unlike European Russia, the composition of the Siberian population was different. In European Russia, the nobility was the bearer of the new secular culture. In Siberia, in addition to the noble officials, a large role in the development of culture was played by the rich merchant population, service people, as well as exiled settlers. This led to a more democratic composition of representatives of creative professions than in the European part of the country. The absence of serfdom affected the cultural life of Siberia. This circumstance made it possible to less strictly implement the principle of social restrictions for admission to educational institutions, in obtaining literacy, and participation in cultural life in general. Russian culture in Siberia was influenced by the aboriginal culture, and the influence of the east. Even the new culture brought from European Russia also experienced this influence. This entailed the formation of local regional characteristics in the cultural life of the population.

Thus, the political actions of the government in the field of culture related to the implementation of the policy of enlightened absolutism extended to the Siberian region without changes. The social and economic conditions of the region were quite conducive to the introduction and spread of a new culture, and the peculiar features of Siberia gave the character of the culture a special local flavor. However, the reign of Catherine II, the organization of cultural institutions - schools, libraries, theaters, was made dependent on the income of the Orders of public charity, city magistrates, and the residents themselves, which led to their difficult financial situation.

The second paragraph "Siberian cities as centers of cultural development" examines the historical environment in which, first of all, there were changes that formed a new culture. The economic uniqueness of Siberian cities and their different historical fates determined the originality of cultural life in Siberia. In this regard, certain cultural centers arose. The city structure - the architectural appearance, the state of the streets and public institutions - were the first things that visitors who visited Siberian cities paid attention to. The cities of Siberia during the reign of Catherine II were characterized by a number of changes: the appearance of regular building and its clear regulation, the construction of stone buildings, since fires were a real natural disaster for the cities. However, financial difficulties and a shortage of skilled craftsmen often slowed down the construction period. In accordance with the all-Russian tendency in Siberia, the classical principles of buildings were introduced along with the existing buildings in the Siberian Baroque style, and in their appearance not only European, but also oriental motives were manifested. In connection with the secularization of 1764, the number of religious buildings not only did not decrease, but increased more and more, the high concentration of churches in some cities of Siberia (Tobolsk, Irkutsk, Yeniseisk) determined their cultural appearance. Large sparsely populated Siberia had its own center - settlements along the Moscow-Siberian tract and merchant cities such as Tomsk, Yeniseisk. In these cities, civil buildings and religious buildings were often created in imitation of those in the capital. City administrations began to care more about improvement, culture, clear planning, however, the measures taken were not always effective. The remoteness from the capital, and from the European part of Russia as a whole, the small number of architectural personnel - all this predetermined the provincial appearance of some cities. But the nature of the province played a positive role, giving the appearance of Siberian cities a unique flavor and originality.

The third section examines the role of the church in the cultural development of Siberia. The state policy towards churches and monasteries during the reign of Catherine II was quite tough. Gradually, they were made dependent on the state and ceased to play a leading role in cultural development. The same cannot be said about Siberia. After the secularization of 1764, the number of Siberian monasteries declined, although the number of churches grew steadily. The church continued to play an important role here and influenced not only cultural processes, but also the daily life of Siberians. Monasteries and churches in Siberia, in addition to ritual religious functions, had educational value, being the centers of education where there were no secular schools yet. The ideas of the Enlightenment, steadily leading to the separation of culture from the church, undoubtedly influenced the traditional culture of Siberia. The worldview of the Siberian population was based on different, sometimes directly opposite phenomena: the pagan rituals of foreigners coexisted with the modern postulates of enlightenment, and the Orthodox canons were bizarrely combined with the strangest superstitions. Therefore, in the cultural and everyday life of Siberians, the church continued to play a leading role: it persecuted and punished followers of schismaticism (even despite the fact that they were officially rehabilitated by the government), rather harshly punished for deviation from generally accepted religious norms and traditions, and even for the inclination population to secular pastime. It is noteworthy that in this respect the church actively cooperated with the secular authorities. In small villages, far from large cities, monasteries and churches played the role of educational and cultural centers, one of the main functions of which was the distribution of books, not only of church literature, but also of secular literature.

On the other hand, elements of secular traditions actively penetrated the church environment, influencing the way of life of the Siberian clergy. Obliging the population to strictly comply with all rituals and norms, the clergy themselves were not distinguished by impeccable behavior and performance of their official duties. All this undoubtedly somewhat averted people from the church. Huge lists of people evading church rituals throughout Siberia eloquently testify to this. Like many people of the 2nd half of the 18th century. Siberians, and especially peasants, remained religious people, but they no longer felt much piety for the church institution with its outward rituals.

Chapter two"Changes in the content of culture during the reign of Catherine II" is also divided into three sections. The first paragraph examines the changes in the education system that took place in Siberia after the establishment of main and small public schools. During 1789 - 1790. 13 public schools were organized on the territory of Siberia. Their discovery was made dependent on the generosity of city thoughts, which soon began to be weighed down by their content. To a lesser extent, this affected Siberia.

For the period from 1786 to the end of the 1790s. the number of students was decreasing. In Siberian schools, classes were conducted in an extremely non-systematic manner, students were admitted and dropped out continuously throughout the year.One of the main reasons for this was the lack of a need for education, an understanding of the need to study, and then apply their knowledge in life. School education, both in Western and Eastern Siberia, after Catherine's reform was built in the same way as in other provinces, and the absence of serfdom made it possible for all categories of the population to study, since the school reform was designed for a mass student who did not have class privileges.

The problem was that the nobility and the bureaucracy often preferred private education to school, having tutors and teachers to teach their children at home. Bourgeois and merchants did not see the point in a comprehensive education, since for their activities they had enough ability to count and write. In rural areas, it was costly for the authorities to organize educational institutions, and the peasants often found it more convenient to hide their ability to count and write from the authorities. Parents of peasant children preferred to teach their children themselves. Thus, the old habits of the family and school constituted a serious obstacle to the spread of Catherine's schools in the provinces.

Another problem is the difficult material and moral situation of the teacher in the Russian school in general and in the Siberian school in particular. This situation was an inevitable consequence of society's attitude to school. The position of teachers was not included in the "Table of Ranks", falling into the teaching rank, for the most part not of their own free will, but by appointment of the diocesan authorities, teacher of the second half of the 18th century. could not move up the social ladder. Also, the lack of interest in schools was largely facilitated by objective circumstances: the inability of school premises, a poor material base for organizing the educational process, and a shortage of qualified teachers.

The second paragraph is devoted to the cultural and leisure activities of the Siberian population. For Siberia in the 2nd half of the 18th century. fundamentally new was the emergence of books, theatrical affairs, the publication of literature and periodicals. All these processes took place in European Russia, therefore, it is not necessary to say that Siberia was cut off from all-Russian cultural phenomena. The decree "On free printing houses" in 1783 gave impetus to the development of book printing and periodicals in Siberia. With the advent of printing houses in Siberia, about 20 titles of various publications came out of its walls, not counting magazines. “Irtysh Turning into Hippocrene” and “Scientist Library” were the only magazines published in the provinces at that time, reflecting the most pressing issues. Nevertheless, there were problems with the distribution of literature, it was difficult to find authors and subscribers, the population was not yet accustomed to this type of reading. The cost of subscription to publications ranged from 8 to 15 rubles, which was very expensive for the bulk of the population (a pood of bread cost 12 kopecks).

During the reign of Catherine II, public libraries appeared in Siberia in large cities - Tobolsk, Irkutsk, Krasnoyarsk, as well as private libraries in the homes of the most enlightened Siberians. With the advent of public libraries, contemporary literature has become more accessible to Siberians. With the growth of the spiritual needs of the population, the appearance of the theater in Siberia is associated. For a very long time, amateur performances were the only form of theatrical performances (in Omsk, Irkutsk), then in 1791 the first professional theater in Siberia was created in Tobolsk. The repertoire of theaters reflected contemporary trends for the second half of the 18th century. drama. We managed to identify 94 titles of plays staged or intended to be staged in the theater (2 tragedies, 13 dramas, 44 comedies, 35 comic operas).

By the end of the 18th century. the orientation of Siberians towards the secular standards of the new culture has intensified, although it has not yet penetrated deeply, affecting only slightly the life of certain segments of the population. The main consumers of secular cultural entertainment were, firstly, residents of large Siberian cities, and secondly, representatives of the upper classes - the nobility, officials, wealthy merchants.

Theaters, printing houses, public libraries were in charge of the orders of the public charity. The material support of these institutions: maintenance, repairs - largely depended on the income of the orders, which predetermined their difficult situation. The local authorities, in the era under study, cared about Siberia as much as the government in any other part of Russia. Concern for the cultural level of Siberia was often associated with the personality of an official holding a responsible post at a certain period, and depended on the measure of his education, as well as on the intensity and strength of his ties with St. Petersburg.

The third paragraph describes the changes in traditional rituals and festive entertainment of Siberians. In the 60-90s. XVIII century many traditional calendar holidays were widely celebrated by both the rural population and the urban residents of Siberia. The townspeople retained some social rituals with long-standing traditions. An indispensable feature of both urban and rural holidays was folk festivities. Differences in the celebration of solemn dates were gradually erased, and traditional forms of festive leisure were replaced by new ones. In rural areas, the peasants made up for the inaccessibility of urban entertainment on their own. Thus, the customs and rituals of folk holidays dedicated to various events included musical, choreographic works, theatrical performances, and decorative elements. Any holiday served as an occasion to demonstrate the best clothes, come up with an unusual fancy dress, sing or dance.

For all segments of the population, religious holidays associated with the calendar cycle were important. But in the style of their conduct, one can note a gradual removal from their own religious, ritual meaning. To a greater extent, this affected the city dwellers - the nobility, the merchants, the bourgeoisie. In some villages remote from the cities, a sacred meaning was still attached to calendar holidays, but basically it was reliably forgotten. Ritual actions, which were once magical rituals, in the time under study became just a game, a kind of filling out of leisure.

V conclusion summarized the results of the study. The process of changes in the spiritual life of Siberia, associated with the spread of the ideas of the Enlightenment and the "secularization" of culture, began as early as the first half of the 18th century, but basically fell on the time of the reign of Catherine II. The spread of education, the development of science and art, the separation of the church from secular culture are the main doctrines of the cultural policy of the enlightened absolutism of Catherine II. All this undoubtedly affected Siberia as well. Changes in cultural life touched Siberia “on top”, without affecting the foundations. The reason was the too fast pace of cultural transformation. Schools, libraries, theaters were created, but the majority of the population has not yet formed a need for them. At the same time, the book, theatrical business, the appearance of periodicals, contrary to popular opinion, were not just a "front facade". The development of these areas was accompanied by significant difficulties, sometimes innovations were simply not accepted by the population. Despite this, it was the politics of the Enlightenment that laid the foundation for culture for the future. The next generation, which began to receive education, already regarded their importance in the economic, social, and cultural life of the country in a different way. They have new moral and ethical norms and values: education, collecting cultural and antiquity objects, love of books, and charitable activities are becoming priorities. A study of the historical aspects of the Enlightenment shows that for the development of Russian culture in Siberia, the factor of the strong influence of the center of the country was of fundamental importance. Therefore, in all areas of the cultural life of Siberia of the period under study, a single line of development with the culture of the European part of Russia is clearly traced.

Khait N.L. On the study of the culture of Siberia in the 60-90s. XVIII century / N.L. Khait // Spiritual and historical readings: Materials of interuniversity. scientific-practical conf. Issue VIII. - Krasnoyarsk: KrasGASA, 2003 .-- S. 283-287.
Khait N.L. The cultural image of Siberian cities and the population of the 2nd half of the 18th century. through the eyes of foreigners / N.L. Khait // V Historical Readings: Sat. materials scientific and practical. conf. - Krasnoyarsk: KrasSU, 2005 .-- S. 193-195.
Khait N.L. Faith and beliefs of the Siberian population in the conditions of enlightened absolutism (the era of Catherine II) / N.L. Khait // Bulletin of the Krasnoyarsk State University. Humanist. science. - Krasnoyarsk: KrasSU, 2006 .-- S. 46-48.
Khait N.L. Cultural leisure of Siberians in the 2nd half of the 18th century. / N.L. Khait // VI Historical readings: Sat. materials scientific and practical. conf. - Krasnoyarsk: KrasSU, 2006 .-- S. 35-40.
Khait N.L. Development of literary traditions and periodicals in Siberia in the era of the enlightened absolutism of Catherine II / N.L. Khait // Book culture of Siberia: materials region. scientific-practical conf. - Krasnoyarsk: GUNB, 2006 .-- S. 138-142.

The total volume of publications is 1.4 pp.

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Introduction

Spiritual culture of the people of Siberia

Government cultural policy

Siberian cities as centers of cultural development

Transformation of the education system

Cultural development of siberia in the era of catherine ii