Romanticism (fr. Romantisme) is a phenomenon of European culture in the XVIII-XIX centuries, which is a reaction to the Enlightenment and the scientific and technological progress stimulated by it; ideological and artistic direction in European and American culture of the late 18th century - the first half of the 19th century. It is characterized by the assertion of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the image of strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, a spiritualized and healing nature. It spread to various spheres of human activity. In the 18th century everything strange, fantastic, picturesque and existing in books, and not in reality, was called romantic. At the beginning of the 19th century, romanticism became the designation of a new direction, opposite to classicism and the Enlightenment.

Romanticism in literature

Romanticism first arose in Germany, among the writers and philosophers of the Jena school (V.G. Wackenroder, Ludwig Tieck, Novalis, brothers F. and A. Schlegel). The philosophy of romanticism was systematized in the works of F. Schlegel and F. Schelling. In further development, German romanticism is distinguished by an interest in fairytale and mythological motives, which is especially clearly expressed in the works of the brothers Wilhelm and Jacob Grimm, Hoffmann. Heine, starting his work within the framework of romanticism, later subjected it to a critical revision.

Theodore Gericault "Medusa" raft (1817), Louvre

In England is largely due to German influence. In England, its first representatives are the poets of the School of Lake, Wordsworth and Coleridge. They established the theoretical foundations of their direction, having familiarized themselves with Schelling's philosophy and the views of the first German romantics during a trip to Germany. For English romanticism, an interest in social problems is characteristic: they oppose to modern bourgeois society the old, pre-bourgeois relations, the glorification of nature, simple, natural feelings.

A striking representative of English romanticism is Byron, who, in the words of Pushkin, "clothed in dull romanticism and hopeless selfishness." His work is imbued with the pathos of the struggle and protest against the modern world, the glorification of freedom and individualism.

Also, the work of Shelley, John Keats, William Blake belongs to English romanticism.

Romanticism became widespread in other European countries, for example, in France (Chateaubriand, J. Stael, Lamartine, Victor Hugo, Alfred de Vigny, Prosper Merimee, Georges Sand), Italy (N. U. Foscolo, A. Manzoni, Leopardi) , Poland (Adam Mickiewicz, Juliusz Slowacki, Zygmunt Krasiński, Cyprian Norwid) and the USA (Washington Irving, Fenimore Cooper, W.C. Bryant, Edgar Poe, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry Longfellow, Herman Melville).

Stendhal also considered himself to be a French romantic, but he meant something different by romanticism than most of his contemporaries. In the epigraph of the novel "Red and Black", he took the words "Truth, the bitter truth", emphasizing his vocation for a realistic study of human characters and actions. The writer was addicted to romantic uncommon natures, for whom he recognized the right to "go on the hunt for happiness." He sincerely believed that it depends only on the way of life of society whether a person can realize his eternal, nature-given craving for well-being.

Romanticism in Russian literature

It is usually believed that in Russia romanticism appears in the poetry of V.A.Zhukovsky (although some Russian poetic works of the 1790-1800s are often attributed to the pre-romantic movement that developed out of sentimentalism). In Russian romanticism, freedom from classical conventions appears, a ballad, a romantic drama is created. A new understanding of the essence and meaning of poetry is being asserted, which is recognized as an independent sphere of life, an expression of the highest, ideal aspirations of a person; the former view, according to which poetry seemed to be empty amusement, something completely serviceable, is no longer possible.

The early poetry of A.S. Pushkin also developed within the framework of romanticism. The pinnacle of Russian romanticism can be considered the poetry of M. Yu. Lermontov, "Russian Byron". Philosophical lyrics of F. I. Tyutchev are both the completion and the overcoming of romanticism in Russia.

The emergence of romanticism in Russia

In the 19th century, Russia was somewhat culturally isolated. Romanticism arose seven years later than in Europe. We can talk about his some imitation. In Russian culture, there was no opposition between man and God. Zhukovsky appears, who remakes German ballads in the Russian way: "Svetlana" and "Lyudmila". Byron's version of romanticism lived and felt in his work first in Russian culture, Pushkin, then Lermontov.

Russian romanticism, starting with Zhukovsky, flourished in the work of many other writers: K. Batyushkov, A. Pushkin, M. Lermontov, E. Baratynsky, F. Tyutchev, V. Odoevsky, V. Garshin, A. Kuprin, A. Blok, A. Green, K. Paustovsky and many others.

ADDITIONALLY.

Romanticism (from the French. Romantisme) is an ideological and artistic trend that emerges at the end of the 18th century in European and American culture and continues until the 40s of the 19th century. Reflecting disappointment in the results of the Great French Revolution, in the ideology of the Enlightenment and bourgeois progress, romanticism opposed utilitarianism and the leveling of personality with the striving for unlimited freedom and "infinite", the thirst for perfection and renewal, the pathos of personality and civil independence.

The painful disintegration of the ideal and social reality is the basis of the romantic worldview and art. The assertion of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of a person, the image of strong passions, a spiritualized and healing nature, is adjacent to the motives of "world sorrow", "world evil", "night" side of the soul. Interest in the national past (often its idealization), the traditions of folklore and culture of one's own and other peoples, the desire to publish a universal picture of the world (primarily history and literature) found expression in the ideology and practice of Romanticism.

Romanticism is seen in literature, visual arts, architecture, behavior, dress, and human psychology.

REASONS FOR THE OCCURRENCE OF ROMANCE.

The immediate cause of the emergence of romanticism was the Great French Bourgeois Revolution. How did this become possible?

Before the revolution, the world was ordered, there was a clear hierarchy in it, each person took his place. The revolution overturned the "pyramid" of society, a new one had not yet been created, so the individual felt a sense of loneliness. Life is a flow, life is a game in which some are lucky and some are not. In literature, images of players appear - people who play with fate. You can recall such works of European writers as "The Gambler" by Hoffmann, "Red and Black" by Stendhal (and red and black are the colors of the roulette!) Lermontov.

THE BASIC CONFLICT OF ROMANCE

The main one is the conflict between man and the world. The psychology of a rebellious personality arises, which Lord Byron most deeply reflected in The Journey of Childe Harold. The popularity of this work was so great that a whole phenomenon arose - "Byronism", and whole generations of young people tried to imitate it (for example, Pechorin in Lermontov's "Hero of Our Time").

Romantic heroes are united by a sense of their own exclusivity. “I” is perceived as the highest value, hence the egocentrism of the romantic hero. But by focusing on himself, a person comes into conflict with reality.

REALITY is a strange, fantastic, extraordinary world, as in Hoffmann's fairy tale "The Nutcracker", or ugly, as in his fairy tale "Little Tsakhes". In these tales, strange events take place, objects come to life and enter into lengthy conversations, the main theme of which is the deep gap between ideals and reality. And this gap becomes the main THEME of the lyrics of romanticism.

THE ERA OF ROMANCE

For the writers of the early 19th century, whose work took shape after the Great French Revolution, life posed different tasks than before their predecessors. They were to discover and artistically form a new continent for the first time.

A thinking and feeling person of the new century had a long and instructive experience of previous generations behind him, he was endowed with a deep and complex inner world, before his eyes were images of the heroes of the French Revolution, Napoleonic wars, national liberation movements, images of the poetry of Goethe and Byron. In Russia, the Patriotic War of 1812 played the role of an important historical milestone in the spiritual and moral development of society, profoundly changing the cultural and historical appearance of Russian society. In terms of its significance for national culture, it can be compared with the period of the 18th century revolution in the West.

And in this era of revolutionary storms, military upheavals and national liberation movements, the question arises, can a new literature emerge on the basis of a new historical reality, which is not inferior in its artistic perfection to the greatest phenomena of the literature of the ancient world and the Renaissance? And can its further development be based on a "modern man", a man of the people? But a man from the people who participated in the French Revolution or on whose shoulders the burden of the struggle against Napoleon fell, could not be described in literature by the means of novelists and poets of the previous century - he demanded other methods for his poetic embodiment.

PUSHKIN - PROSPER OF ROMANCE

Only Pushkin, the first in Russian literature of the 19th century, was able, both in poetry and in prose, to find adequate means for the embodiment of the versatile spiritual world, the historical appearance and behavior of that new, deeply thinking and feeling hero of Russian life, who took a central place in it after 1812 and in features after the Decembrist uprising.

In lyceum poems, Pushkin could not yet, and he did not dare to make the hero of his lyrics a real person of the new generation with all his inherent internal psychological complexity. Pushkin's poem represented, as it were, the resultant of two forces: the poet's personal experience and the conventional, “ready-made”, traditional poetic formula-scheme, according to the internal laws of which this experience was formed and developed.

However, the poet gradually frees himself from the power of the canons and in his poems we are no longer a young "philosopher" -epicure, an inhabitant of a conventional "town", but a man of the new century, with his rich and intense intellectual and emotional inner life.

A similar process takes place in Pushkin's work in any genre, where the conventional images of characters, already sanctified by tradition, give way to the figures of living people with their complex, varied actions and psychological motives. At first it is still somewhat distracted Prisoner or Aleko. But soon they are replaced by quite real Onegin, Lensky, young Dubrovsky, German, Charsky. And, finally, the most complete expression of the new type of personality will be Pushkin's lyrical “I”, the poet himself, whose spiritual world is the deepest, richest and most complex expression of burning moral and intellectual issues of the time.

One of the conditions for the historical revolution that Pushkin made in the development of Russian poetry, drama and narrative prose was his fundamental break with the educational-rationalistic, ahistorical concept of the "nature" of man, the laws of human thinking and feeling.

The complex and contradictory soul of a "young man" of the early 19th century in "The Prisoner of the Caucasus", "Gypsies", "Eugene Onegin" became for Pushkin an object of artistic and psychological observation and study in its special, specific and unique historical quality. Putting his hero every time in certain conditions, depicting him in different circumstances, in new relationships with people, exploring his psychology from different angles and using for this each time a new system of artistic "mirrors", Pushkin in his lyrics, southern poems and Onegin ”Strives from various angles to approach the understanding of his soul, and through it - further to the understanding of the patterns of contemporary socio-historical life reflected in this soul.

The historical understanding of man and human psychology began to emerge in Pushkin in the late 1810s and early 1820s. The first clear expression of it we meet in the historical elegies of that time ("The daylight went out ..." (1820), "To Ovid" (1821), etc.) and in the poem "Prisoner of the Caucasus", the protagonist of which was conceived by Pushkin, by the poet's own admission, as a bearer of feelings and moods characteristic of the youth of the 19th century with their "indifference to life" and "premature old age of the soul" (from a letter to V.P. Gorchakov, October-November 1822)

32. The main themes and motives of the philosophical lyrics of A.S. Pushkin in the 1830s ("Elegy", "Demons", "Autumn", "When outside the city ...", Kamennoostrovsky cycle, etc.). Genre and style searches.

Reflections on life, its meaning, its purpose, death and immortality become the leading philosophical motives of Pushkin's lyrics at the stage of the completion of the “celebration of life”. Among the poems of this period, the most noticeable is "Am I wandering along noisy streets ..." In it, the motive of death, its inevitability, sounds persistently. The problem of death is solved by the poet not only as an inevitability, but also as a natural completion of earthly life:

I say: the years will pass

And how many of us are not visible here,

We will all descend under the eternal vaults -

And someone's hour is already close.

The poems amaze with the amazing generosity of Pushkin's heart, which is capable of welcoming life even when there is no room left for it.

And let at the coffin entrance

Young life will play

And indifferent nature

Shine with eternal beauty, -

The poet writes, completing the poem.

In "Traffic Complaints" A.S. Pushkin writes about the disorder in his personal life, about what he lacked since childhood. Moreover, the poet perceives his own fate in an all-Russian context: the Russian off-road in the poem has both direct and figurative meaning, the meaning of this word is the historical wandering of the country in search of the right path of development.

Off-road problem. But already different. Spiritual, properties arise in the poem "Demons" by A.S. Pushkin. It tells about the loss of man in the whirlwinds of historical events. The motive of spiritual impassability was gained by the poet, who ponders a lot about the events of 1825, about his own miraculous deliverance from the fate that befell the participants in the popular uprising of 1825, about the miraculous deliverance from the fate that befell the participants in the uprising on Senate Square. In Pushkin's poems, the problem of being chosen, understanding the high mission entrusted by God to him as a poet, arises. It is this problem that becomes the leading one in the poem "Arion".

Continues the philosophical lyrics of the thirties, the so-called Kamennoostrovsky cycle, the core of which is made up of the poems "Hermit Fathers and Wives are innocent ...", "Imitation of Italian", "Worldly Power", "From Pindemonti". This cycle unites reflections on the problem of poetic knowledge of the world and man. From the pen of A.S. Pushkin comes out a poem transcription of the Lenten prayer by Efim Sirin. Reflections about religion, about its great strengthening moral power, become the leading motive of this poem.

Pushkin the philosopher experienced a real heyday in the Boldin autumn of 1833. Among the major works on the role of fate in human life, on the role of personality in history, the poetic masterpiece "Autumn" attracts. The motive of human connection with the cycle of natural life and the motive of creativity are leading in this poem. Russian nature, life, merged with it, obeying its laws, seems to the author of the poem to be the greatest value., Without it there is no inspiration, which means there is no creativity. "And every autumn I bloom again ..." - the poet writes about himself.

Peering into the artistic fabric of the poem "... I visited again ...", the reader easily discovers a whole complex of themes and motives of Pushkin's lyrics, expressing ideas about man and nature, about time, about memory and fate. It is against their background that the main philosophical problem of this poem sounds - the problem of generational change. Nature awakens in man the memory of the past, although she herself has no memory. It is renewed, repeating itself in each of its updates. Therefore, the noise of the new pines of the "young tribe", which the descendants will someday hear, will be the same as now, and it will touch those strings in their souls that will make them remember their deceased ancestor, who also lived in this repeating world. This is what allows the author of the poem "... I visited again ..." to exclaim: "Hello, Young tribe, unfamiliar!"

The path of the great poet through the "cruel age" was long and thorny. He led to immortality. The motive of poetic immortality is the leading one in the poem "I erected a monument to myself not made by hands ...", which became a kind of testament to A.S. Pushkin.

Thus, philosophical motives were inherent in Pushkin's lyrics throughout his entire work. They arose in connection with the poet's appeal to the problems of death and immortality, faith and unbelief, the change of generations, creativity, the meaning of life. All the philosophical lyrics of A.S. Pushkin can be subjected to periodization, which will correspond to the life stages of the great poet, at each of which she thought about some very specific problems. However, at any stage of his creative work, A.S. Pushkin spoke in his poems only about those of general significance for mankind. This is probably why "the folk path will not grow" to this Russian poet.

ADDITIONALLY.

Analysis of the poem "When outside the city, I wander broodingly"

"... When outside the city, I wander thoughtfully ...". So Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin

begins the poem of the same name.

Reading this poem, it becomes clear his attitude to all feasts

and the luxury of urban and metropolitan life.

Conventionally, this poem can be divided into two parts: the first is about the capital's cemetery,

the other is about the countryside. In the transition from one to the other, respectively, changes and

the mood of the poet, but, highlighting the role of the first line in the poem, I think it would be

it is wrong to take the first line of the first part as defining the whole mood of the verse, since

lines: “But how am I fond of Autumn sometimes, in the evening silence, In the village to visit

ancestral cemetery ... ”They radically change the direction of the poet's thought.

In this poem, the conflict is expressed in the form of the opposition of urban

cemeteries, where: “Lattices, posts, ornate tombs. Under which all the dead rot

capitals In a swamp, somehow cramped by a row ... ”and rural, closer to the heart of the poet,

cemeteries: “Where the dead doze in solemn rest, there are graves that are not decorated

spaciousness ... ”But, again, comparing these two parts of the poem, one cannot forget about

the last lines, which, it seems to me, reflect the author's entire attitude to these two

completely different places:

1. "What gloom finds evil with me, Even if I spit and run ..."

2. “The oak stands broadly over the important coffins, hesitating and rustling ...” Two parts

one poem is juxtaposed as day and night, moon and sun. Author through

comparisons of the true purpose of those who come to these cemeteries, and those lying underground

shows us how different the same concepts can be.

I'm talking about the fact that a widow or a widower will come to city cemeteries only for the sake of

to create an impression of grief and sorrow, although it is not always correct. Those who

lies under “inscriptions in both prose and in verse” during his lifetime they cared only “About virtues,

about service and ranks ”.

On the contrary, if we talk about a rural cemetery. People go there so that

pour out your soul and talk to someone who no longer exists.

It seems to me that it is no coincidence that Alexander Sergeevich wrote such a poem for

a year before his death. He was afraid, as I think, that he would be buried in the same city,

the capital's cemetery and he will have the same grave as those whose tombstones he contemplated.

“Thieves from the pillars unscrewed urns

Slimy graves, which are also here,

Yawn, they are waiting for the tenants in the morning. "

Analysis of the poem by A.S. Pushkin "Elegy"

Crazy years faded fun

It's hard for me like a vague hangover.

But like wine is the sadness of days gone by

In my soul, the older the stronger.

My path is dull. Promises me labor and sorrow

A turbulent sea to come.

But I don’t want to die, oh friends;

And I know I will have delights

Amid sorrows, worries and anxieties:

Sometimes I'll revel in harmony again,

I will shed tears over fiction,

A.S. Pushkin wrote this elegy in 1830. It belongs to philosophical lyrics. Pushkin turned to this genre as an elderly poet, wise by life and experience. This poem is deeply personal. Two stanzas constitute a semantic contrast: the first discusses the drama of life, the second sounds the apotheosis of the poet's creative self-realization, the high purpose of the poet. We may well identify the lyrical hero with the author himself. In the first lines ("crazy years, extinct fun / hard for me, like a vague hangover.") The poet says that he is no longer young. Looking back, he sees a path traversed behind him, which is far from perfect: past fun, from which the soul is heavy. However, at the same time, the longing for the bygone days fills the soul, it is intensified by the feeling of anxiety and uncertainty of the future, in which "work and sorrow" is seen. But it also means movement and a fulfilling creative life. "Labor and grief" is perceived by an ordinary person as hard rock, but for a poet it is ups and downs. Labor - creativity, grief - impressions, vivid in importance events that bring inspiration. And the poet, despite the years passed, believes and waits for the "turbulent sea to come."

After rather gloomy lines in meaning, which seem to knock out the rhythm of a funeral march, suddenly a light take-off of a wounded bird:

But I don’t want to die, oh friends;

I want to live in order to think and suffer;

The poet will die when he stops thinking, even if blood runs through the body and the heart beats. The movement of thought is true life, development, and therefore the striving for perfection. Thought is responsible for reason, and suffering for feelings. "Suffering" is also the capacity for compassion.

A tired person is burdened by the past and sees the future in a fog. But the poet, the creator predicts with confidence that "there will be delights between sorrows, worries and worries." What will these earthly pleasures of the poet lead to? They give new creative fruits:

Sometimes I'll revel in harmony again,

I will shed tears over fiction ...

Harmony is probably the wholeness of Pushkin's works, their flawless form. Or it is the very moment of the creation of works, the moment of all-consuming inspiration ... The poet's fiction and tears are the result of inspiration, this is the work itself.

And maybe at my sunset sad

Love will shine with a farewell smile.

When the muse of inspiration comes to him, maybe (the poet doubts, but hopes) he will love and be loved again. One of the main aspirations of the poet, the crown of his work, is love, which, like a muse, is a life partner. And this love is the last. "Elegy" in the form of a monologue. It is addressed to "friends" - to those who understand and share the thoughts of the lyrical hero.

The poem is a lyrical meditation. It is written in the classical genre of elegy, and the tone and intonation correspond to this: elegy in translation from Greek means "mournful song". This genre has been widespread in Russian poetry since the 18th century: Sumarokov, Zhukovsky, later Lermontov, Nekrasov turned to it. But Nekrasov's elegy is civil, Pushkin's is philosophical. In classicism, this genre, one of the "high", obliged to use grandiloquent words and Old Church Slavonicism.

Pushkin, in turn, did not neglect this tradition, and used Old Slavonic words, forms and phrases in his work, and the abundance of such vocabulary does not in the least deprive the poem of lightness, grace and clarity.

Romanticism as a literary movement

Literature is a constantly changing, continuously developing phenomenon. Speaking about the changes that have occurred in Russian literature in different centuries, it is impossible to ignore the theme of successive literary trends.

Definition 1

Literary direction - a set of ideological and aesthetic principles characteristic of the works of many authors of the same era.

There are a lot of literary directions. This is classicism, and realism, and sentimentalism. A separate chapter in the history of the development of literary movements is romanticism.

Definition 2

Romanticism (fr. Romantisme) is a literary movement that considered the spiritual and creative life of a person and his independence and freedom to be the highest values.

Romanticism first appeared in France during the era of the French Revolution (1789-1799) and the world industrial revolution. This trend prevailed in European and Russian literature at the end of the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries.

Romanticism was preceded by classicism and the Age of Enlightenment. Romanticism denied many of the values ​​of these ideologies. For example, if classicism gave preference to reason (ration), then romanticism was focused on feelings (emotion). Classicism talked about civilization, romanticism about nature; for the classicists, society and the state were important, for the novelists - freedom, feelings and aspirations of an individual.

Romanticism in Russian literature of the 19th century

The development of Russian romanticism was influenced by two major historical events:

1. Patriotic War of 1812;
2. The uprising of the Decembrists in 1825.

The leading minds of that time were disappointed in the ideas of the Enlightenment and anticipated a radical change in the socio-political structure of Russia. They advocated the creation of a fundamentally new society in which justice will prevail.

Remark 1

The main value of novelists is a person's personality.

The works of romantics reflect not the real world as it is, but the whole universe of feelings, experiences and internal conflicts of the protagonist. The hero cannot come to terms with the lowland and everyday life of reality, does not obey its morality and law.

One of the founders of romanticism in Russia is the poet V.A. Zhukovsky. His ballads, poems, elegies, messages and romances, filled with deep philosophical meaning and striving for a certain moral ideal, fully reflected romantic values.

Romantic works by V.A. Zhukovsky:

• "Undine";
• "The Forest King";
• "Svetlana";
• "Rural cemetery";
• "Slav".

Following Zhukovsky, N.V. Gogol and M. Yu. Lermontov. Their work belongs to a different stage in the life of the Russian Empire. In 1825, the Decembrist movement was defeated, which entailed an ideological crisis in society. In romantic works, motives of disappointment with real life and attempts to escape from it into an ideal world began to appear.

These ideas were especially vividly reflected in Lermontov's society. The writer openly sympathized with the defeated Decembrists.

Remark 2

Romanticism was characterized by an appeal to folklore and folk themes.

Romantic works by M.Yu. Lermontov:

• "Mtsyri";
• "Song of the merchant Kalashnikov";
• Ishmael Bey.

Romantic works were also written by A.S. Pushkin. As you know, he also sympathized with the Decembrists and largely shared their beliefs. Creating at the beginning of the 19th century, during the heyday of romanticism, he could not ignore this literary trend.

Romantic works by A.S. Pushkin:

• The Queen of Spades;
• "Eugene Onegin";
• "In the depths of Siberian ores ..."

Other novelists are E.A. Baratynsky, K.F. Ryleev, V.K. Kuchelbecker and others.

Novelists often created ballads and dramas, and also asserted a new purpose of poetry - a space for expressing the highest aspirations and desires of a person.

Romantic hero

The revolutions of the 18th century radically changed the way of life of Europeans. It was lonely and scary in this new world. Romanticism absorbed the historical context and, on the pages of the works of novelists, began to show life as a game in which there are always winners and losers.

Feeling how defenseless they were in a world ruled by money and chance, the romantics created heroes whose main tragedy of personality was their loss, striving for a better world, and opposition to society.

Remark 3

The romantic hero is an exceptional person under exceptional circumstances.

The romantic hero is often out of touch with reality and has no interest in ordinary, mundane life. This hero is always endowed with deep and high feelings and experiences, which lead to their personal tragedy.

The romantic hero strives for some kind of moral ideal, but is often disappointed in it.

In the center of a romantic work, as a rule, there is a conflict between the personality (the main character) and society. This personality is so unique and individual, so different from his environment, that conflict is inevitable. The hero cannot live in the present, preferring to him either memories of the past or thoughts of a happy future.

The image of a "superfluous person" appeared on the basis of romantic ideas.

Definition 3

The "superfluous person" is a hero who does not fit into society. A person who is knocked out of his environment, is not accepted by him, is with society in an ideological conflict.

Examples of Russian romantic heroes:

1. Mtsyri (“Mtsyri”, M.Yu. Lermontov). He strives to escape from the world of the monastery into the ideal world of the lost homeland, experiences deep feelings. Depicted with strong lyrical pathos;
2. Vladimir Lensky (Eugene Onegin, A. Pushkin). Natural, mannered and passionately in love, Lensky dies in a duel, anticipating the tragic outcome of the duel;
3. Eugene Onegin (Eugene Onegin, A. Pushkin). Confronts society, cannot find himself.
4. Grigory Pechorin ("A Hero of Our Time", M.Yu. Lermontov). Many researchers note the similarity of the images of Onegin and Pechorin. An egoist hero who opposes society;
5. Alexander Chatsky (Woe from Wit, A. Griboyedov). Like Onegin and Pechorin, Chatsky is an extra person who is going through a conflict with the society around him, as well as an internal conflict.

But the sifting through the temple, erected over the centuries,
I was shut up by a gloomy fate for them.
Their fate is burdened with wretchedness in chains;
Their genius is put to death by severe need.
V. Zhukovsky
At the beginning of the 19th century, classicism and sentimentalism in Russian poetry, as in all world literature, was replaced by romanticism. The first romantic features emerge already in the 90s in the works of M.N. Muravyov, I.I.Dmitriev, N.M. Karamzin: an acute sense of the inadequacy of the surrounding world to natural human desires and needs, hence the passionate call to follow in their actions and deeds to dictates and needs, feelings, the cult of friendship and love are the most characteristic manifestations of the "life of the heart."
NM Karamzin in his poem "Prometheus, or the Disagreement of a Poet" wrote about the extra-class value of man.
Isn't it a sensitive soul to change?
She is soft as wax, as clear as a mirror
And all Nature in it is visible with shades.
She can't seem to be one for you
In a variety of natural wonders.
MN Muravyov in the poem "Time" noticed the change of mood, the variability of all living things.
Each moment has a special color,
From the state of a busy heart.
He is gloomy for one whose heart is heavy with malice,
For good - golden.
For the poetry of romanticism, the situation is typical when the hero "goes to the bosom of nature", sensitively reacts to everything that happens. Romantics developed a nationally distinctive culture in their poetry, interpreted folklore and mythology in a new way. Russian romanticism took place under the slogan of national revival. It was a new stage in the development of social ideology, immediately following the Enlightenment and reflecting the general disappointment in the historical results of the Great French Revolution. The forms of social organization that reigned after her "turned out to be the most evil, the most sobering caricature of the brilliant promises of the philosophers of the 18th century." This raised the question of re-evaluating the social and moral values ​​developed by the philosophers of the Enlightenment.
In our socio-historical development, Russia also went through this stage, but in a very peculiar way. In Russia, which did not survive the bourgeois revolution, the socio-economic crisis deepened and the political situation aggravated, which ended in the Decembrist uprising.
On the one hand, the inability to objectively explain the inevitable contradictions between the world and Russian historical process gave rise in some social and literary circles to the desire to oppose the shaky and changeable
In the course of historical development, more or less stable values ​​of a purely spiritual and moral nature. One of the earliest trends of Russian romanticism, represented by the names of V. A. Zhukovsky (1783-1852), K. N. Batyushkov (1787-1855) and their followers, grew out of these moods and tendencies.
The feeling of the tragedy of life, its disorder, destroying the best spiritual aspirations in a person and interfering with his free development, permeates the work of V. Zhukovsky. Already in one of the first program poems "Man", the poet develops an extremely pessimistic concept of the meaning and purpose of human existence, understanding man as a wanderer deprived of a haven, a "play of fate." This is a kind of echo of the social storms and social upheavals that marked the end of the 18th - early 19th centuries. He is echoed by K. Batyushkov in his article "Something about morality based on philosophy and religion" in 1815, showing that the world around modern man is cruel and unjust; in its chaotic disorder, a person is deeply unhappy, he is a victim of mysterious forces that control the destinies of the world, and no efforts and tricks of the mind can change the predetermined destiny.
Overcoming classicism and sentimentalism in his work, V. A. Zhukovsky becomes a romantic, giving preference to the subjective lyrical perception of the external world. 39 ballads, written by Zhukovsky from 1808 to 1833, to which you can add a few more poems, including the "Night Review" of 1836, constituted a significant and important period of the poet's work. In "Lyudmila" he assimilated the features of that "nationality", albeit conventional, which was in the traditions of the end of the 18th century: he transferred the scene of action from abroad to pre-Petrine Russia, gave the heroine a Russian name, introduced national songs, concepts and phrases. But the idea of ​​the doom of a person, powerless to fight fate, runs through all his work, especially ballads.
In the ballad "Lyudmila" the heroine rebelles against a tragic fate and dies in this unequal struggle.
Mortal murmurs are reckless;
The Almighty King is just;
Your Creator heard the groan, -
Your hour was striking, the end has come.
The reconciling aphorism from the ballad "Triumph of the Winners" somewhat softens the author's pessimism.
Mortal, to the force that oppresses us.
Submit and endure;
Sleeping in a coffin, sleep peacefully;
Use life, living ...
In his works, V. A. Zhukovsky refuses to fight, calling for personal and social obedience. The religious essence of this worldview is beyond doubt. But VA Zhukovsky's religiosity is broad, by no means dogmatic or orthodox churchly, but rather psychological and even philosophical. The poet with the same penetration perceived and creatively processed "Catholic legends of the Middle Ages" and ancient views expressed in mythological images, and Eastern, ancient Indian and ancient Persian teachings, the essence of which is in the struggle between light and darkness, good and evil. Zhukovsky's religiosity is expressed most of all in faith in a person, in sympathy for his suffering, for his fate. Humanity in the broadest sense, translated into a moral and ethical plan, fills the work of Zhukovsky.
Often in life it happened like this:
Someone bright flies to us,
Raises the bedspread
And in the distant beckons.
The great merit of the author is that, "having spiritualized Russian poetry with romantic elements, he made it accessible to society, gave it the opportunity for development, and without Zhukovsky we would not have had Pushkin," wrote VG Belinsky.
The name of Konstantin Nikolaevich Batyushkov in the history of Russian poetry stands next to the name of Zhukovsky - both of them revealed the unknown for Russian poetry - the inner world of man. However, the nature of Batyushkov's poetry differed sharply from the work of Zhukovsky. Vasily Andreevich was distinguished by nebulousness and uncertainty, and by Batyushkov - certainty and clarity. According to Belinsky, Zhukovsky introduced romanticism into Russian poetry, and Batyushkov - "the beauty of an ideal form." The events of 1812 were reflected in the poem "To Dashkov" by Konstantin Nikolaevich.
Only coals, dust and stones of the mountain,
Only piles of bodies around the river
Only beggars pale shelves.
The world of Batyushkov's former poetry could not stand the collision with a real national and historical catastrophe. The poet of joy and delight retreated in Konstantin Nikolaevich in front of a man and a patriot.
No no! While on the field of honor
For the ancient city of my fathers
I will not sacrifice revenge
And life, and love for the homeland ...
My friend! Until then I will
All are alien to muses and charites,
Wreaths, by the hand of love of the retinue,
And noisy joy in wine!
After this poem, Batyushkov the poet falls silent for more than a year, turning to creativity only upon his return from the foreign campaign of the Russian army. The Patriotic War for Konstantin Nikolaevich was a complete collapse of the cult of France as the most enlightened country in Europe, and, consequently, a disappointment in the educational philosophy, whose ideas about "freedom" and "philanthropy" in the light of the "terrible", "violent actions" of the French "vandals" in Moscow lost all their lofty and humane meaning for him.
Batyushkov believed that in order to live in this world of chaos and destruction, a person needs a reliable moral idea. But not a single philosophical thought provided this basis. The poet's ascetic worldview was expressed in one of his best poems "To a Friend" (1815).
Tell me, young sage, what is firm on earth?
Where is life always happy? ..

But where, tell me, my friend, is the direct light shining?
What is eternally pure, immaculate?
The youthful fascination with the joys of life (“We have passed the region of deceiving ghosts, // We drank the cups of voluptuousness”) disappeared “in the struggle of troubles”; time spares neither beauty, nor charm, nor love, nor friendship, and the poet exclaims in horror:
Wanderers for a minute, we walk through the graves.
We count all days as losses
On the wings of joy we fly to our friends -
And what!., We embrace their urns.
The poet found truth and found hope in religious faith. The concluding stanza of the poem, however, shocks the reader with the coldness and death of the newfound truth:
My path to the grave is illuminated by the sun:
I step with a reliable foot
And, from the robe of the wanderer, overthrowing dust and decay,
I fly into the world of the best spirits.
The perception of earthly life with its anxieties, joys and grief only as preparations for the transition to another, "better" world, to one degree or another, was reflected in Batyushkov's elegies. For example, in "Dying Tassa" the poet wrote:
My spirit! Power of attorney to the Creator!
Take courage; be patient with a stone.
But is he for a better end
Lead me through the abusive flame?
... He is the source of high feelings for us
Love for the graceful straight
And thoughts, pure and deep! ..
In 1814-1816, Batyushkov's views on epicurean poetry were formed. Konstantin Nikolaevich believed that "the description of the customs of the people and the rituals of faith is the best attribute of the epic." Batyushkov decided to write an epic poem about Rurik, collected material, but the plan remained unfulfilled. Young Pushkin, whose first poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" was the best embodiment of Konstantin Nikolaevich's ideas, was perceived by the author as a combination of fiction of legendary times and national flavor. It was no coincidence that he followed AS Pushkin's work so closely. Batyushkov himself was unable to create a major epic work that could embody his views. But a reflection of these views, characteristic of the last years of the poet's work, were two of his elegies - "On the ruins of a castle in Sweden" (1814) and "Crossing the Rhine" (1816).
Before the reader unfolds pictures of the distant historical past of the Normans and Germanic tribes, born in the imagination of the poet.
There sang the sound of swords and the whistle of feathered arrows,
And the crackle of shields, and the thunder of blows.
I am seething with battle among the devastated villages
And hailstones in the glow of fires ...
Batyushkov was several years ahead of the broad movement of romanticism in Russian literature that began in the 1920s. This determines the fruitfulness of most of his undertakings, adopted and developed by the poets of the 1920s, but this also determines the inevitability of the fact that the paths discovered by Batyushkov were soon adopted by young poets, so that already for V.G.Belinsky in the 1940s, the traces of Konstantin Nikolaevich's influence on modern poetry were clearly perceptible only in the work of A.S. Pushkin - the poet closest and akin to him in spirit.

Romanticism is a trend in European and American literature of the late 18th - first half of the 19th century. The epithet "romantic" in the 17th century served to characterize the adventurous and heroic plots and works written in Romance languages ​​(as opposed to those created in classical languages). In the 18th century, this word denoted the literature of the Middle Ages and Renaissance. At the end of the 18th century in Germany, then in other European countries, incl. - in Russia, word romanticism became the name of an artistic movement that opposed itself to classicism

The ideological prerequisites for romanticism are disappointment in the Great French Revolution in bourgeois civilization in general (in its vulgarity, prosaicity, lack of spirituality). The mood of hopelessness, despair, "world sorrow" is the disease of the century, inherent in the heroes of Chateaubriand, Byron, Musset. At the same time, they are characterized by a sense of hidden wealth and limitless possibilities of being. Hence, Byron, Shelley, the Decembrist poets and Pushkin have an enthusiasm based on faith in the all-powerfulness of a free human spirit, a passionate thirst for the renewal of the world. The romantics dreamed not of private improvements in life, but of the integral solution of all its contradictions. Many of them are dominated by the mood of struggle and protest against the evil reigning in the world (Byron, Pushkin, Petofi, Lermontov, Mitskevich). Representatives of contemplative romanticism often tended to think about the domination of incomprehensible and mysterious forces in life (fate, fate), about the extremely important thing to submit to fate (Chateaubriand, Coleridge, Southey, Zhukovsky).

Romantics are characterized by striving for everything unusual - for fantasy, folk legends, for "bygone centuries" and exotic nature. Οʜᴎ create a special world of imaginary circumstances and exceptional passions. Especially, in contrast to classicism, great attention is paid to the spiritual wealth of the individual. Romanticism discovered the complexity and depth of the spiritual world of man, his unique originality ("man is a small Universe"). The attention of romantics to the peculiarities of the national spirit and culture of different peoples, to the originality of different historical eras was fruitful. Hence the demand for historicism and nationality of art (F. Cooper, W. Scott, Hugo).

Romanticism was marked by the renewal of artistic forms: the creation of the genre of a historical novel, a fantastic story, a lyric-epic poem. Lyrics reached an extraordinary flowering. The possibilities of the poetic word have been significantly expanded due to its polysemy.

The highest achievement of Russian romanticism is the poetry of Zhukovsky, Pushkin, Baratynsky, Lermontov, Tyutchev

Romanticism originally arose in Germany, a little later in England; it has become very common in all European countries. The names were known to the whole world: Byron, Walter Scott, Heine, Hugo, Cooper, Anderson. Romanticism emerged in the late 18th century and lasted until the 19th century. It was a time of gigantic social upheavals, when the feudal-medieval world was crumbling and the capitalist system arose and was established on its ruins; time of bourgeois revolutions. The emergence of romanticism is associated with an acute dissatisfaction with social reality; disappointment in the environment and impulses to a different life. Toward a vague but imperiously attractive ideal. This means that a characteristic feature of romanticism is dissatisfaction with reality, complete disappointment in it, disbelief that life should be built on the principles of goodness, reason, and justice. Hence the sharp contradiction between ideal and reality (striving for a lofty ideal). Russian romanticism emerges under different conditions. It was formed in an era when the country was yet to enter a period of bourgeois transformations. It reflected the disillusionment of the advanced Russian people with the existing autocratic-serf system, the vagueness of their ideas about the paths of the country's historical development. Romantic ideas in Russia seem to be softened. In the first couples, romanticism was closely associated with classicism and sentimentalism. Zhukovsky and Batyushky are considered to be the founders of Russian romanticism.

The main theme of romanticism is the theme of romanticism. Romanticism is an artistic method that developed at the beginning of the 19th century. Romanticism is characterized by a special interest in the surrounding reality, as well as the opposition of the real world to the ideal.

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XIX century. Romanticism

Romanticism is an artistic movement that emerged at the beginning of the 19th in Europe and continued until the 40s of the 19th century. Romanticism is observed in literature, fine arts, architecture, behavior, clothing, human psychology. The supporters of romanticism opposed vulgarity and evil. They sought to free the individual from superstition and power, because for them each person is unique and unique.

NSRICHES OF THE OCCURRENCE OF ROMANCE

The immediate cause of the emergence of romanticism was the Great French Bourgeois Revolution.

Before the revolution, the world was ordered, there was a clear hierarchy in it, each person took his place. The revolution overturned the "pyramid" of society, a new one had not yet been created, so the individual felt a sense of loneliness. Life is a flow, life is a game in which some are lucky and some are not. In this era, gambling arises and gains immense popularity, gambling houses appear all over the world and in Russia in particular, guides on playing cards are published.

The new social order is far from the kind of society that the philosophers of the eighteenth century foreshadowed. The time has come for disappointment.

In the philosophy and art of the beginning of the century, tragic notes of doubt about the possibility of transforming the world on the principles of Reason sounded. Attempts to get away from reality and at the same time to comprehend it caused the emergence of a new worldview system - ROMANCE.

European romanticism arose after the French bourgeois revolution and relied on the philosophy of Hegel, Fichta and Schereng, which were based on idealistic views and their discord with social reality. Romantics embraced the idea of ​​personal freedom put forward by the revolution, but at the same time, in Western countries, they realized the defenselessness of a person in a society where monetary interests prevailed. Therefore, the attitude of many romantics is characterized by confusion and confusion in front of the surrounding world, the tragedy of the fate of the individual. They denied reality, and therefore the idea of ​​a double world was present in all works.

MAIN FEATURES OF ROMANCE

Romantics occupied different social and political positions in society. They all rebelled against the results of the bourgeois revolution, but they rebelled in different ways, since each had its own ideal. But for all the many-sidedness and diversity, romanticism has stable features.

Disappointment in modernity gave romantics a special interest in the past: in pre-bourgeois social formations, in patriarchal antiquity. Many romantics were characterized by the idea that the picturesque exoticism of the countries of the south and east - Italy, Spain, Greece, Turkey - is a poetic contrast to the boring bourgeois everyday life. In these countries, then still little affected by civilization, the romantics were looking for bright, strong characters, an original, colorful way of life.

All of them came from the denial of the Enlightenment and the rationalistic canons of classicism, which fettered the artist's creative initiative. And if classicism divides everything in a straight line, into bad and good, into black and white, then romanticism divides nothing in a straight line. Classicism is a system, but romanticism is not. Romanticism propelled the advancement of modern times from classicism to sentimentalism, which shows the inner life of a person in harmony with the vast world. And romanticism opposes harmony to the inner world. It is with romanticism that real psychologism begins to appear. The main task of romanticism was to depict the inner world, mental life, and this could be done on the basis of stories, mysticism, etc.

In their imaginations, the romantics transformed the unsightly reality or went into the world of their experiences. The gap between dream and reality, the opposition of a beautiful fiction to objective reality, lay at the heart of the entire romantic movement. For the first time, romanticism poses the problem of the language of art. An artist is an interpreter of the language of nature, a mediator between the world of spirit and people. However, romanticism was not a homogeneous trend: its ideological development went in different directions. Among the romantics were reactionary writers, adherents of the old regime, who glorified feudal monarchy and Christianity. On the other hand, romantics with a progressive outlook expressed a democratic protest against feudal and all kinds of oppression, embodied the people's revolutionary impulse for a better future.

Romanticism left a whole era in the world art culture, its representatives were: V. Scott, J. Byron, Shelley, V. Hugo, A. Mitskevich, and others; in the fine arts of E. Delacroix, T. Gericault, F. Runge, J. Constable, W. Turner, O. Kiprensky and others; in music F. Schubert, R. Wagner, G. Berlioz, N. Paganini, F. Liszt, F. Chopin and others. They discovered and developed new genres, paid close attention to the fate of the human person, revealed the dialectic of good and evil, masterfully revealed human passions, etc.

Romanticism in literature

Romantics often idealized patriarchal society, in which they saw the kingdom of goodness, sincerity, and decency. Poetising the past, they went into old legends, folk tales. Romanticism has got its own face in each culture: among the Germans - in mysticism; for the British - in a person who will oppose himself to reasonable behavior; the French have unusual stories.

In literature, images of players appear - people who play with fate. You can recall such works of European writers as "The Gambler" by Hoffmann, "Red and Black" by Stendhal (and red and black are the colors of the roulette!) Lermontov.

Romantic writers asserted the values ​​of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, depicted strong passions, a spiritualized and healing nature, which was also unrealistic. The landscape in their works is either very bright, or vice versa, thickening the colors, it is devoid of halftones. All this was done in order to more accurately convey the feelings of the heroes. Here are the names of the best romantic writers in the world: Novalis, Jean Paul, Hoffmann, W. Wordsworth, W. Scott, J. Byron, V. Hugo, A. Lamartine, A. Mishkevich, E. Poe, G. Melville and our Russian poets - M. Yu. Lermontov, F. I. Tyutchev.

A ROMANTIC HERO is a player, he plays with life and fate, because only in a game can a person feel the power of fate.

The romantic hero is an individualist. A superman who lived in two stages: 1) before colliding with reality; he lives in a "pink" state, he is possessed by the desire for achievement, change in the world. 2) after a collision with reality; he continues to consider this world both vulgar and boring, but he becomes a skeptic, a pessimist. Having clearly understood that nothing can be changed, the desire to heroism is reborn into a striving for dangers.

Every culture has had its own romantic hero, but Byron's Childe Harold gave a typical representation of the romantic hero. He put on the mask of his hero (this suggests that there is no distance between the hero and the author) and managed to comply with the romantic canon. The heroes of romanticism are restless, passionate, indomitable. These are exceptional characters in exceptional circumstances. A romantic hero, whoever he is - a rebel, a loner, a dreamer or a noble romantic - is always an exceptional person, with indomitable passions, he is necessarily internally strong. This personality has a pretentious, inviting speech.

Signs of a romantic piece.

First, in every romantic work there is no distance between the hero and the author. Secondly, the author of the hero does not judge, but even if something bad is said about him, the plot is so built that the hero is not guilty as it were. The plot in a romantic work is usually romantic. Romantics also build a special relationship with nature, they like storms, thunderstorms, cataclysms.

THE BASIC CONFLICT OF ROMANCE

The main one is the conflict between man and the world. The psychology of a rebellious personality arises, which Lord Byron most deeply reflected in The Journey of Childe Harold. The popularity of this work was so great that a whole phenomenon arose - "Byronism", and whole generations of young people tried to imitate him.

Romantic heroes are united by a sense of their own exclusivity. “I” - this is recognized as the highest value, hence the egocentrism of the romantic hero. But by focusing on himself, a person comes into conflict with reality.

REALITY is a strange, fantastic, extraordinary world, like in Hoffmann's fairy tale "The Nutcracker", or ugly, like in his fairy tale "Little Tsakhes". In these tales, strange events take place, objects come to life and enter into lengthy conversations, the main theme of which is the deep gap between ideals and reality. And this gap becomes the main THEME of the lyrics of romanticism.

ROMANCE IN RUSSIA

In the 19th century, Russia was somewhat culturally isolated. Romanticism arose seven years later than in Europe. We can talk about his some imitation. In Russian culture, there was no opposition between man and God. Zhukovsky appears, who remakes German ballads in the Russian way: Svetlana and Lyudmila. Byron's version of romanticism lived and felt in his work first in Russian culture, Pushkin, then Lermontov.

Romanticism in Russia arose at the turning point of the Patriotic War of 1812. The essence of romantic art was the desire to oppose real reality with a generalized ideal image. Russian romanticism is inseparable from the general European, but its feature was a pronounced interest in national identity, national history, the assertion of a strong, free personality. It is customary to divide Russian romanticism into several periods: initial (1801-1815), mature (1815-1825) and the period of post-Kabrist development.

In Russian literature, the emergence of romanticism is associated with the name of V.A.Zhukovsky (1783-1852). His ballads, full of humanity and high human dignity, gave Russian poetry "soul and heart", constituted "a whole period of the moral development of our society." The development of lyrics from elegiac dreamy to deeply civic, imbued with a sense of the struggle "for the oppressed freedom of man", was a characteristic feature of romantic poetry. In the mainstream of the romantic movement, the foundations of the Russian historical novel were laid (A.A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, M.N. Zagoskin), an understanding of the national identity and nationality of culture was formed. Romantics poets have done a lot for literary translation. In essence, they first introduced the Russian reader to the works of contemporary Western European and ancient writers. Zhukovsky was a talented translator of the works of Homer, Byron, Schiller.

Nationality during this period was identified with national identity, i.e. with peculiarities of lifestyles, way of life, costume, etc. In the last decades before the reform, the development of artistic culture was characterized by a movement from romanticism to realism. In literature, this movement is associated with the names of Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol.

The work of M.Yu. was important on the path of romanticism to realism. Lermontov (1814-1841), which reflected a difficult time - lost hopes and that came after the events of December 14, 1825. disappointment. The poet's rejection of the surrounding reality acquired a pronounced social character. His novel Heroes of Our Time (1841), while retaining romantic features, was one of the first works of critical realism literature.

The huge role of N.V. Gogol (1809-1852) in Russian literature. Dead Souls (the first volume was published in 1842) is one of the brightest realistic depictions of Russian life at that time.

Remaining deeply humanistic, literature increasingly takes on the character of teaching and compassion. One of the discoveries of the writers of the "natural school" (early works of Goncharov, Nekrasov, Turgenev, Dostoevsky, etc.) was the "little man" with his hard life. The fate of the serf peasant became the subject of close attention of Russian literature (the stories of D. V. Grigorovich, essays from the peasant life of V. I. Dal, the cycle of stories "Notes of a Hunter" by I. S. Turgenev). 60-70-ies - the time of greatest achievement Turgenev (1818-1883) and Dostoevsky (1821-1881) made a huge contribution to Russian and world culture.

Dostoevsky's creativity, ideologically complex, sometimes tragic, is always deeply moral. Pain for the humiliated and insulted, faith in man were the main theme of the writer, deeply worried about Dostoevsky's revolutionary underground in Russia, the moral character of some of his leaders. He opposed strife and blood as a means of renewing the world.

ON. Nekrasov (1821-1877 \ 1878) young people of Raznochinsk considered their ideological leader. The theme of the people, their searches and hopes occupied a central place in Nekrasov's poetry. It expresses the dream not only of the happiness of the people, but also the belief in its strength, capable of throwing off the shackles of slavery (Nekrasov's poem `Who Lives Well in Russia ').

The pinnacle of Russian literature of the 19th century was the work of L.N. Tolstoy (1828-1910). He posed in his novels, novellas, dramas, and journalism “great questions.” The writer was always worried about the fate of the people and the Motherland (the historical epic War and Peace). One of the poignant social literary works of our time is Tolstoy's novel Anna Karenina, in which he, depicting the life of Russian society in the 70s, passes a merciless judgment on the morality, morals, and foundations of this society.

At the end of the 70s, A.P. Chekhov (1860-1904), who began his literary career in humorous and satirical magazines. In the work of Chekhov - his deep democratism, craving for working people, irreconcilable to the bourgeois and those in power. A huge impression on all progressive Russian society was made by his story `Ward No. 6 ', in which the author showed the whole terrible truth of Russian life.

The ideological atmosphere of the 80s was reflected in the fate of Russian art and literature. The attention of writers and artists began to attract more and more universal, philosophical, generalized, moral and psychological problems. The 80s did not leave anything significant in the history of the Russian classic novel.

From the mid-90s in the social and political life of Russia, a social upsurge began again, a feature of which was a broad liberal movement, the participation of workers in revolutionary democratic actions.

New phenomena in the art of the late XIX century - early XX century were a kind of reaction to realism, which prevailed in the artistic culture of the XIX century. Among such phenomena was DECADENCE, (from the French - decline), MODERNISM, (from the French - the newest, modern).

Russian literature continued to play an extremely important role in the cultural life of the country. During these years, L.N. Tolstoy. In 1899. was published his last novel `Resurrection ', in which the protest against social evil and social injustice sounded sharp and angry.Tolstoy did not accept and did not support modernism in art.

At the time in question, A.P. Chekhov; novels and short stories ("My Life", "Guys", "House with a Mezzanine", "Lady with a Dog", etc.). In the 90s, A.M. Gorky's career began (1868-1936). At the end of the 90s, Essays and Stories brought the writer all-Russian fame. The heroic romance of the young Gorky was a hymn to the "madness of the brave", reflecting the democratic revolutionary sentiments that had spread in the 90s. In his works written at this time (Old Woman Izergil, Chelkash, Girl and Death, a song about a petrel, a Petrel), he sang a proud, free man, love as a source of life, fearlessness of those who called to fight and were ready to give their lives for her ...

During these years, young writers entered Russian literature. Bunin (1870-1953) and Kuprin (1870-1938) are the largest writers of Russian realistic literature at the end of the 19th century. - and XX century.

Literary and cultural life of Russia in the second half of the XIX-XX centuries. `can be called the spring of life, the epoch of the flourishing of spiritual forces and social ideals, the time of ardent striving for light and for new yet unknown social activities.

EUROPEAN ROMANCE

Romanticism in England took shape earlier than in other countries of Western Europe. The very word "romantic" as a synonym for "picturesque", "original" appeared in 1654. It was first used by the artist John Evelyn when describing the surroundings of Bath.

The beginning of English romanticism is usually associated with the appearance of the collection of Wordsworth and Coleridge "Lyrical Ballads" (1798), with the publication of a preface containing the main tasks of the new art. The English romantics did not have a consistently serious attitude towards romanticism, as, say, the German romantics. A distinctive feature of the spiritual activity of the British, reflected in artistic literary creativity, was ridicule, a parody of what was just becoming a literary norm. An example of this is Stern's novel Tristram Shandy, which both asserts and destroys the structure of the novel. Byron's Don Giovanni in the opening songs is also a parody of a traveling romantic character very reminiscent of Childe Harold.

The main attention of romantics was paid to a special property of romanticism - imagination. Coleridge's theoretical understanding of the imagination is associated with the most important page in the history of English culture - the penetration of German philosophy and aesthetics into English spiritual life.

The first stage of English romanticism, coinciding with the work of the poets of the Lake School, took place against the backdrop of Gothic and Jacobin novels. The novel as a genre did not yet feel its usefulness, therefore it represented a vast field for experiment. To the fore the English lyric poetry was presented by S. Rogers and W. Blake, T. Chatterton, D. Keats and T. Moore, poets-leukists. Poetry was more radical in terms of form. Having revived the genres of national lyrics (ballad, epitaph, elegy, ode) and significantly reworking them in the spirit of the times with an emphasis on the internally relaxed world of the individual, she confidently went from imitation to originality. The melancholy and sensibility of English poetry coexisted with the Hellenistic pagan admiration for life and its joys. Hellenistic motives in Keats and Moore emphasized the optimistic nature of the changes taking place in poetry - liberating it from the conventions of classicism, softening didactics, enriching narrative lines, filling them with subjectivity and lyricism. Oriental motifs in the lyrics of Shelley, Byron, Moore appear already in the first period of English romanticism.

The second stage in the development of English romanticism is associated with the work of Byron, Shelley, Scott, who discovered new genres and types of literature. The symbols of this period were the lyric-epic poem and the historical novel. Coleridge's Literary Biography, Byron's English Bards and Scottish Observers, excellent prefaces to Shelley's poems, Shelley's own treatise The Defense of Poetry, literary criticism by W. Scott (one hundred articles in the Edinburgh Review), his research on modern literature. The novel occupies a worthy place along with poetry. The novels of everyday life and morals by M. Edgeworth, F. Bernie, D. Austen underwent significant structural reorganization, national versions of novels were created - the Scottish cycle of W. Scott, "Irish novels" by M. Edgeworth. A new type of novel is designated - a pamphlet novel, a novel of ideas, a satirical burlesque that ridicules the extremes of romantic art: the exclusivity of the hero, his satiety with life, melancholy, arrogance, addiction to the depiction of Gothic ruins and secluded mysterious castles (Peacock, Austen).

Dramatization of the form of the novel requires the removal of the author's figure from the text; the characters gain more independence, the novel becomes more relaxed, less strict in form. The novel became a popular genre and Scott began publishing a series of national novels. By the 30s, romanticism has become a leading trend in the novel, although the romantic hero is not always positive (Bulwer-Lytton, Disraeli, Peacock).

THE DIFFERENCE OF RUSSIAN AND EUROPEAN ROMANCE

Fairy tales, legends, fantastic stories have become the main literary form of European romanticism.

In the romantic works of Russian writers, the fairy-tale world arises from the description of everyday life, everyday situations. This everyday situation is refracted and rethought as fantastic. This feature of the works of Russian romantic writers can be traced most clearly on the example of "The Night Before Christmas" by N.V. Gogol.

But the main work of Russian romanticism is rightfully considered “The Queen of Spades” by A.S. Pushkin. The plot of this work differs significantly from the plot of the famous opera by Tchaikovsky of the same name.

The difference between romanticism and classicism. We see that classicism divides everything in a straight line, into good and bad, into black and white. Romanticism divides nothing in a straight line. Classicism is a system, but romanticism is not.

Romanticism in painting

The romantic artist never tried to accurately reproduce reality. It is more important for him to express his attitude towards her, moreover, to create his own, fictional image of the world, cha one hundred on the principle of contrast with the surrounding life, so that through this fiction, through contrast, convey to the reader both his ideal and his rejection of the world he denies.

In the visual arts, romanticism manifested itself most clearly in painting and graphics, less expressively in sculpture and architecture. The brightest representatives of romanticism in the visual arts were Russian romantic painters. In their canvases, they expressed the spirit of love of freedom, active action, passionately and passionately appealed to the manifestation of humanism. The everyday canvases of Russian painters are distinguished by their relevance and psychologism, an unprecedented expression. Spiritual, melancholic landscapes are also an attempt by romantics to penetrate the human world, to show how a person lives and dreams in the sublunary world. Russian romantic painting was different from foreign painting. This was determined by both the historical setting and tradition.

Features of Russian romantic painting:

Educational ideology weakened but did not fail, as in Europe. Therefore, romanticism was not pronounced.

Romanticism developed in parallel with classicism, often intertwining with it.

Academic painting in Russia has not yet exhausted itself.

Romanticism in Russia was not a stable phenomenon; romantics were drawn to academism. By the middle of the XIX century. the romantic tradition has almost died out.

Works related to romanticism began to appear in Russia already in the 1790s (works by Feodosiy Yanenko "Travelers Caught by the Storm" (1796), "Self-Portrait in a Helmet" (1792)). As in other countries, artists belonging to Russian romanticism introduced a completely new emotional mood into the classical genres of portrait, landscape and genre scenes.

In Russia, romanticism began to manifest itself first in portraiture. In the first third of the 19th century, it mostly lost its connection with the aristocracy. Portraits of poets, artists, art patrons, depictions of ordinary peasants began to occupy a significant place. This tendency was especially clearly manifested in the work of O.A. Kiprensky (1782 - 1836) and V.A. Tropinin (1776 - 1857).

Vasily Andreevich Tropinin strove for a lively, unconstrained characterization of a person, expressed through his portrait. Portrait of a Son (1818), “Portrait of A.S. Pushkin "(1827)," Self-portrait "(1846) are striking not by the portrait resemblance to the originals, but by an unusually subtle penetration into the inner world of a person.

Tropinin's romanticism has distinct sentimental origins. It was Tropinin who was the founder of the genre, somewhat idealized portrait of a man of the people (The Lacemaker (1823)).

A distinctive feature of Kiprensky's portraits is that they show the spiritual charm and inner nobility of a person. The portrait of a hero, courageous and strong in feeling, was supposed to embody the pathos of freedom-loving and patriotic moods of an advanced Russian person. Kiprensky was looking for "human" in a person, and the ideal did not deviate from him the personal traits of the model.

Portraits of Kiprensky show the spiritual and natural wealth of a person, his intellectual strength. He had an ideal of a harmonious personality, but Kiprensky did not seek to literally project this ideal onto an artistic image. In creating an artistic image, he proceeded from nature, as if measuring how far or close it is to such an ideal. In fact, many of those depicted by him are on the threshold of the ideal, are driven towards it.

Noting the contradictions in the souls of his heroes, showing them in anxious moments of life, when fate changes, previous ideas break, youth leaves, etc., Kiprensky seems to be experiencing along with his models. Hence - a special involvement of the portraitist in the interpretation of artistic images, which gives the portrait a soulful shade. The complexity of the techniques, the character of the figure changed from piece to piece.

The works of romantic artists are oriented towards nature and were clearly written with its use. However, the task of each of the artists - to embody the aesthetic perfection of a simple nature - led to a kind of idealization of images, clothes, situations for the sake of creating an image-metaphor. Observing life, nature, the artist rethought it, poeticizing the visible. This qualitatively new combination of nature and imagination with the experience of ancient and Renaissance masters, giving rise to images unknown to art before, is one of the features of romanticism in the first half of the 19th century. The metaphorical nature was one of the most important features of the romantic when Russian artists were still new to Western European romantic portraiture.

The increased interest in the personality of a person, characteristic of romanticism, predetermined the flourishing of the portrait genre in the first half of the 19th century, where the self-portrait became the dominant feature. As a rule, the creation of a self-portrait was not an accidental episode. Artists repeatedly wrote and painted themselves, and these works became a kind of diary reflecting various states of the soul and stages of life, and at the same time, they were a manifesto addressed to their contemporaries. Self-portrait was not a custom genre, the artist wrote for himself and here, more than ever, he became free in self-expression. In the 18th century, Russian artists rarely painted author's images, only romanticism with its cult of the individual, the exclusive contributed to the rise of this genre. The variety of self-portrait types reflects the artists' perception of themselves as a rich and multifaceted personality.

Self-portraits of Kiprensky appeared at critical moments of life, they testified to the rise or fall of mental strength. Through his art, the artist looked at himself. At the same time, he did not use, like most painters, a mirror; he mostly painted himself according to his idea, he wanted to express his spirit, but not his appearance.

Another outstanding portrait painter was Venetsianov. In 1811 he received the title of academician from the Academy, appointed for “Self-portrait” and “Portrait of K.I. Golovachevsky with three students of the Academy of Arts ”. These are outstanding works.

It was common for all of them to imagine themselves in a romantic halo, self-portraits were a kind of poetic opposition to the environment. The uniqueness of the artistic nature was manifested in the posture, gestures, and the extraordinaryness of a specially conceived costume.

The pathos of affirming individuality - one of the most progressive features in the art of that time - forms the main ideological and emotional tone of the portrait, but appears in a peculiar aspect that is almost not found in Russian art of that period. The affirmation of the personality goes not so much through the disclosure of the wealth of her inner world, but more through the external way of rejecting everything around her. At the same time, the image undoubtedly looks impoverished, limited.

In the brilliant paintings of I.K. Aivazovsky vividly embodied the romantic ideals of rapture with the struggle and power of natural forces, the perseverance of the human spirit and the ability to fight to the end. A large place in the master's legacy is occupied by night seascapes dedicated to specific places where the storm gives way to the magic of the night, a time that, according to the views of romantics, is filled with a mysterious inner life, and where the artist's pictorial searches are aimed at the way of extracting extraordinary light effects ("View of Odessa on a moonlit night "," View of Constantinople by moonlight ", both - 1846).

Romanticism in Russia as a perception of the world existed in its first wave from the end of the 18th century to the 1850s. The line of the romantic in Russian art did not end in the 1850s. The symbolists were the direct heirs of the romantics. Romantic themes, motives, expressive techniques entered the art of different styles, trends, creative associations. The romantic outlook or worldview turned out to be one of the most lively, tenacious, and fruitful.

Romanticism as a general attitude, characteristic mainly of young people, as a striving for the ideal and creative freedom, is still constantly living in world art.

romanticism decadence modernism

WESTERN EUROPEAN ROMANCE

Germany... Many of the German romantics were alien to the pathos of advanced social ideas. They idealized the Middle Ages. They gave themselves up to unaccountable mental impulses, talked about the abandonment of human life. The art of many of them was passive and contemplative. They created their best works in the field of portrait and landscape painting.

An outstanding portrait painter was Otto Runge (1777-1810). The portraits of this master, with external calm, amaze with their intense and tense inner life.

The image of the romantic poet is seen by Runge in Self-portrait. He carefully examines himself and sees a dark-haired, dark-eyed, serious, full of energy, thoughtful, self-absorbed and strong-willed young man. The romantic artist wants to know himself. The manner in which the portrait is executed is fast and sweeping, as if the spiritual energy of the creator should be conveyed in the texture of the work; in the dark color scale contrasts of light and dark appear. Contrast is a characteristic pictorial technique of the romantic masters.

A romantic artist will always try to catch the changeable play of moods of a person, to look into his soul. And in this respect, children's portraits will serve as a fertile material for him. In Hulsenbeck's portrait of children (1805) Runge not only conveys the liveliness and spontaneity of a child's character, but also finds a special technique for a bright mood, which delights the plein-air discoveries of the 2nd floor. XIX century. The background in the picture is a landscape, which testifies not only to the artist's coloristic gift, an admirable attitude to nature, but also to the emergence of new problems in the masterful reproduction of spatial relations, light shades of objects in the open air. The romantic master, wishing to merge his “I” with the vastness of the Universe, strives to capture the sensually tangible appearance of nature. But with this sensuality of the image, he prefers to see the symbol of the big world, the “artist's idea”.

Runge, one of the first romantic artists, set himself the task of synthesizing the arts: painting, sculpture, architecture, music. The ensemble sound of the arts was supposed to express the unity of the divine forces of the world, each particle of which symbolizes the cosmos as a whole.

The Runge cycle, or, as he called it, the “fantastic musical poem” “The Times of the Day” - morning, noon, night - is an expression of this concept. The image of a person, landscape, light and color are symbols of the always changing cycle of natural and human life.

Another outstanding German romantic painter, Caspar David Friedrich (1774-1840), preferred landscape to all other genres and during his seventy-year life painted only pictures of nature. The main motive of Friedrich's work is the idea of ​​the unity of man and nature.

Subjectivism in the depiction of the landscape comes into art only with the creativity of romantics, foreshadowing the lyrical disclosure of nature by the masters of the 2nd floor. XIX century. Researchers note in the works of Friedrich "expansion of the repertoire" of landscape motifs. The author is interested in the sea, mountains, forests and various shades of the state of nature at different times of the year and day.

Frederick was a subtle master of seascapes: "Ages", "Moonrise over the sea", "The death of" Hope "in the ice". Friedrich is very precise in drawing, musically harmonious in the rhythmic construction of his paintings, in which he tries to speak with emotions of color and light effects.

It seems more formal to differentiate with artists - "classics" - representatives of classicism of another branch of romantic painting in Germany - the Nazarenes. Founded in Vienna and settled in Rome (1809-1810), the Union of St. Luke united the masters with the idea of ​​reviving the monumental art of religious issues. The Middle Ages were a favorite period in history for romantics. But in their artistic quest, the Nazarenes turned to the painting traditions of the early Renaissance in Italy and Germany. Overbeck and Geforr were the initiators of a new alliance, which was later joined by Cornelius, J. Schnoff von Karolsfeld, Faith Fürich.

This movement of the Nazarenes corresponded to their forms of confrontation with academic classicists in France, Italy, and England. For example, in France, the so-called artists - “primitivists” - emerged from David's workshop, in England - the Pre-Raphaelites. In the spirit of the romantic tradition, they considered art to be an “expression of the time,” “the spirit of the people,” but their thematic or formal preferences, which at first sounded like a slogan for unification, after some time turned into the same doctrinaire principles as those of the Academy, which they rejected.

The art of romanticism in France developed in special ways. The first thing that distinguished it from similar movements in other countries was its active offensive (“revolutionary”) character. Poets, writers, musicians, artists defended their positions not only by creating new works, but also by participating in magazine and newspaper polemics, which researchers describe as a “romantic battle”. Famous V. Hugo, Stendhal, Georges Sand, Berlioz and many other writers, composers, journalists of France “sharpened their pens” in romantic polemics.

Representatives of the "school", academics rebelled against the language of the romantics: their excited hot color, their modeling of the form, not that usual for the "classics", statuary-plastic, but built on strong contrasts of color spots; their expressive design, deliberately abandoning precision and classic polish; their bold, sometimes chaotic composition, devoid of majesty and unshakable tranquility. But it was not a simple clash of two bright, completely different individuals, it was a struggle between two different artistic worldviews.

This struggle lasted almost half a century, romanticism in art won victories not easily and not immediately, and the first artist of this trend was Theodore Gericault (1791-1824) - a master of heroic monumental forms, who combined in his work both classicistic features and features of romanticism itself ...

The first brilliant successes of romanticism are associated with the name of Theodore Zhariko. Already in his early paintings (portraits of the military, images of horses), ancient ideals receded before the direct perception of life.

Traditions of such dynamics of pictorial narration of romance in France practically did not have, except in the reliefs of Gothic temples.

Gericault's innovation opened up new possibilities for conveying the movement that excited romantics, the latent feelings of a person, and the coloristic textured expressiveness of the picture.

Gericault's successor in his search was Eugene Delacroix. Delacroix managed not only to prove the correctness of romanticism, but also to bless a new direction in painting, the 2nd floor. XIX century. - impressionism.

Delacroix, as a romantic, recorded the state of his soul not only with the language of picturesque images, but also literally framed his thoughts. He described well the creative process of the romantic artist, his experiments in color, reflections on the relationship between music and other forms of art. His diaries became a favorite reading for artists of subsequent generations.

The French romantic school made significant changes in the field of sculpture (Rude and his relief "Marseillaise"), landscape painting (Camille Corot with his light-air images of the nature of France).

Thanks to romanticism, the artist's personal subjective vision takes the form of a law. Impressionism will completely destroy the barrier between artist and nature, declaring art to be an impression. Romantics talk about the artist's fantasy, “the voice of his feelings,” which allows you to stop work when the master considers it necessary, and not as academic standards of completeness require.

If Gericault's fantasies focused on the transfer of movement, Delacroix - on the magical power of color, and the Germans added to this a certain "spirit of painting", then spanish romantics represented by Francisco Goya (1746-1828) showed the folklore origins of the style, its phantasmagoric and grotesque character. Goya himself and his work look far from any stylistic framework, especially since the artist very often had to follow the laws of the material of execution (when, for example, he made paintings for woven tapestry carpets) or the requirements of the customer.

His phantasmagorias came to light in the etching series Caprichos (1797-1799), Disasters of War (1810-1820), Disparantes (Madness) (1815-1820), murals in the House of the Deaf and the Church San Antonio de la Florida in Madrid (1798). Serious illness in 1792. entailed the complete deafness of the artist. The art of the master after the endured physical and spiritual trauma becomes more focused, thoughtful, internally dynamic. The outer world, which was closed due to deafness, activated Goya's inner spiritual life.

In etchings "Caprichos" Goya achieves exceptional power in the transmission of instant reactions, impetuous feelings. The black-and-white performance, thanks to the bold combination of large spots, the absence of the linearity characteristic of graphics, acquires all the properties of a painting.

The fantastic world of dreams is also realized in his works by the English romantic artist William Blake (1757-1827). England was the classic land of romantic literature. Byron. Shelley became the banner of this movement. The main feature of English painting has always been an interest in the human person, which allowed the portrait genre to develop fruitfully. Romanticism in painting is very closely related to sentimentalism. The romantics' interest in the Middle Ages gave rise to a great historical literature. The recognized master of which is W. Scott. In painting, the theme of the Middle Ages determined the appearance of the so-called Perafaelites.

Ulyam Blake is an amazing type of romantic in the English cultural scene. He writes poetry, illustrates his own and other people's books. His talent sought to embrace and express the world in a holistic unity. His most famous works are considered illustrations to the biblical Book of Job, Dante's Divine Comedy, Milton's Paradise Lost. He inhabits his compositions with titanic figures of heroes, which correspond to their surroundings of an unreal enlightened or phantasmagoric world. A sense of rebellious pride or harmony difficult to create from dissonances overwhelms his illustrations.

In the work of English landscape painters of the early 19th century. romantic hobbies are combined with a more objective and sober view of nature.

Romantically elevated landscapes are created by William Turner (1775-1851). He loved to portray thunderstorms, showers, storms at sea, bright, fiery sunsets. Turner often exaggerated the effects of lighting and intensified the sound of colors even when he painted the calm state of nature. For greater effect, he used the technique of watercolors and applied oil paint in a very thin layer and painted directly on the ground, achieving iridescent shades. An example is the painting "Rain, Steam and Speed" (1844).

The special character of English culture and romantic art opened up the possibility of the appearance of the first plein air artist, who laid the foundations for the light and air depiction of nature in the 19th century, John Constable (1776-1837). The Englishman Constable chose landscape as the main genre of his painting.

The constable painted large sketches in oil on the plain air with a subtle observation of different states of nature. In them he was able to convey the complexity of the inner life of nature and its everyday life (“View of Highgate from the Hempstead Hills”, c. 1834; “Hay Wagon”, 1821; “Dethem Valley ”, circa 1828), achieved this with the help of writing techniques. He painted with moving strokes, sometimes thick and rough, sometimes smoother and more transparent. The impressionists will come to this only at the end of the century.

Romantics open the world of the human soul, individual, unlike anyone else, but sincere and therefore close to all sensual vision of the world. The instantaneousness of the image in painting, and not its consistency in literary performance, determined the artists' focus on the most complex transfer of movement, for the sake of which new formal and coloristic solutions were found. Romanticism left a legacy to the second half of the 19th century. artistic personality. The symbol that the romantics had to express the essential connection of idea and life.

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