Early Renaissance painters. Great Renaissance painters

Renaissance - translated from French means "Renaissance". This is the name given to an entire era, symbolizing the intellectual and artistic flowering of European culture. Renaissance originated in Italy at the beginning of the 14th century, heralding the extinction of an era of cultural decline and the Middle Ages), which was based on barbarism and ignorance, and, developing, reached its peak in the 16th century.

For the first time, a historiographer of Italian origin, a painter and author of works on the life of famous artists, sculptors and architects at the beginning of the 16th century, wrote about the Renaissance.

Initially, the term "Renaissance" meant a certain period (early XIV century) of the formation of a new wave of art. But after a while this concept acquired a broader interpretation and began to denote a whole era of development and formation of a culture opposite to feudalism.

The Renaissance period is closely associated with the emergence of new styles and techniques of painting in Italy. Interest in antique images appears. Secularism and anthropocentrism are integral features that fill the sculptures of that time and painting. The Renaissance is replacing the asceticism that characterized the medieval era. An interest comes to everything worldly, the boundless beauty of nature and, of course, man. Renaissance artists approach the vision of the human body from a scientific point of view, trying to work out everything to the smallest detail. Pictures become realistic. Painting is saturated with a unique style. She established the basic canons of taste in art. A new concept of worldview called "humanism" is widely spread, according to which a person is considered the highest value.

Renaissance

The spirit of prosperity has a wide expression in the paintings of that time and fills the painting with a special sensuality. The Renaissance era links culture with science. Artists began to consider art as a branch of knowledge, thoroughly studying human physiology and the world around them. This was done in order to more realistically reflect the truth of God's creation and the events taking place on their canvases. Much attention was paid to the depiction of religious subjects, which acquired an earthly content thanks to the skill of geniuses such as Leonardo da Vinci.

There are five stages in the development of Italian Renaissance art.

International (court) Gothic

Court Gothic (ducento), which originated at the beginning of the 13th century, is characterized by excessive colorfulness, pomp and pretentiousness. The main type of paintings is a miniature depicting altar scenes. Artists use tempera paints to create their paintings. The Renaissance is rich in famous representatives of this period, for example, such as the Italian painters Vittore Carpaccio and Sandro Botticelli.

Pre-Renaissance Period (Proto-Renaissance)

The next stage, which is believed to have anticipated the era of the Renaissance, is called the Proto-Renaissance (trecento) and falls on the end of the XIII - the beginning of the XIV century. In connection with the rapid development of the humanistic worldview, painting of this historical period reveals the inner world of a person, his soul, has a deep psychological meaning, but at the same time has a simple and clear structure. Religious plots fade into the background, and secular ones become the leading ones, and a person with his feelings, facial expressions and gestures acts as the main character. The first portraits of the Italian Renaissance appear, taking the place of icons. Famous artists of this period are Giotto, Pietro Lorenzetti.

Early renaissance

At the beginning, the stage of the early Renaissance (quattrocento) begins, symbolizing the flourishing of painting with the absence of religious subjects. The faces on the icons acquire a human appearance, and the landscape, as a genre in painting, occupies a separate niche. The founder of the artistic culture of the early Renaissance is Mozaccio, whose concept is based on intellectuality. His paintings are highly realistic. The great masters explored linear and aerial perspective, anatomy and used knowledge in their creations, in which the correct three-dimensional space can be seen. Representatives of the early Renaissance are Sandro Botticelli, Piero della Francesca, Pollaiolo, Verrocchio.

High Renaissance, or "Golden Age"

From the end of the 15th century, the stage of the High Renaissance (cinquecento) began and lasted for a relatively short time, until the beginning of the 16th century. Venice and Rome became its center. Art workers expand their ideological horizons and are interested in space. A person appears in the image of a hero, perfect both spiritually and physically. The figures of this era are considered Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Titian Vecellio, Michelangelo Buonarrotti and others. The great artist Leonardo da Vinci was a "universal man" and was in constant search of truth. Being engaged in sculpture, drama, various scientific experiments, he managed to find time for painting. The creation "Madonna of the Rocks" clearly displays the style of chiaroscuro created by the painter, where the combination of light and shadow creates the effect of three-dimensionality, and the famous "La Gioconda" is made using the "smooth" technique, creating the illusion of haze.

Late Renaissance

In the period of the late Renaissance, which falls on the beginning of the 16th century, the city of Rome was seized and plundered by German troops. This event marked the beginning of an era of extinction. The Roman cultural center ceased to be the patron saint of the most famous figures, and they were forced to disperse to other cities in Europe. As a result of the growing inconsistencies of views between the Christian faith and humanism at the end of the 15th century, Mannerism became the predominant style that characterizes painting. The Renaissance era is gradually coming to an end, since the basis of this style is considered to be a beautiful manner, which overshadows the idea of ​​the harmony of the world, truth and the omnipotence of reason. Creativity becomes complex and acquires the features of the confrontation of various directions. Brilliant works belong to such famous artists as Paolo Veronese, Tinoretto, Jacopo Pontormo (Carrucci).

Italy became a cultural center of painting and endowed the world with brilliant artists of this period, whose paintings still evoke emotional delight.

Apart from Italy, the development of art and painting took an important place in other European countries. This movement was named. It is especially worth noting the painting of France of the Renaissance, which grew on its own soil. The end of the Hundred Years War caused the growth of universal self-awareness and the development of humanism. There is realism, connection with scientific knowledge, gravitation towards the images of antiquity. All of these features bring it closer to Italian, but the presence of a tragic note in the canvases is a significant difference. Famous Renaissance painters in France - Angerrand Sharonton, Nicola Froman, Jean Fouquet, Jean Clouet the Elder.

The Renaissance, or Renaissance, is a historic milestone in European culture. This is a fateful stage in the development of world civilization, which replaced the denseness and obscurantism of the Middle Ages and preceded the emergence of cultural values ​​of the New Time. Anthropocentrism is inherent in the heritage of the Renaissance - in other words, an orientation towards Man, his life and work. Distancing itself from church dogmas and plots, art acquires a secular character, and the name of the era refers to the revival of antique motifs in art.

The Renaissance, which originated in Italy, is usually divided into three stages: early ("quattrocento"), high and later. Consider the features of the work of the great masters who worked in those ancient, but significant times.

First of all, it should be noted that the creators of the Renaissance were not only engaged in "pure" fine art, but also showed themselves as talented researchers and discoverers. For example, a set of rules for constructing linear perspective was described by an architect from Florence named Filippo Brunelleschi. The laws formulated by him made it possible to accurately depict a three-dimensional world on canvas. Along with the embodiment of progressive ideas in painting, its very ideological content has also changed - the heroes of the paintings have become more "earthly", with pronounced personal qualities and characters. This even applied to works on topics related to religion.

Outstanding names of the Quattrocento period (second half of the 15th century) - Botticelli, Masaccio, Mazolino, Gozzoli and others - have rightfully secured a place of honor in the treasury of world culture.

During the High Renaissance (first half of the 16th century), the entire ideological and creative potential of artists is fully revealed. A characteristic feature of this time is the reference of art to the era of antiquity. Artists, however, do not blindly copy ancient subjects at all, but rather use them to create and develop their own unique styles. Thanks to this, the visual arts acquire consistency and severity, yielding to a certain frivolity of the previous period. Architecture, sculpture and painting of this time harmoniously complemented each other. Buildings, frescoes, paintings created in the High Renaissance period are true masterpieces. The names of recognized geniuses shine: Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael Santi, Michelangelo Buonarotti.

The personality of Leonardo da Vinci deserves special attention. They say about him that this is a man far ahead of his time. An artist, architect, engineer, inventor - this is not a complete list of the hypostases of this multifaceted personality.

The modern man in the street Leonardo da Vinci is known primarily as a painter. His most famous work is "Mona Lisa". On her example, the viewer can appreciate the innovation of the author's technique: thanks to the unique courage and relaxed thinking, Leonardo developed fundamentally new ways to "revive" the image.

Using the phenomenon of light scattering, he achieved a decrease in the contrast of secondary details, which raised the realism of the image to a new level. The master paid great attention to the anatomical accuracy of the embodiment of the body in painting and graphics - the proportions of the "ideal" figure are fixed in the "Vitruvian Man".

The second half of the 16th and the first half of the 17th century is usually called the Late Renaissance. This period was characterized by very diverse cultural and creative tendencies, so it is difficult to judge it unambiguously. The religious trends of southern Europe, which were embodied in the Counter-Reformation, led to an abstraction from the glorification of human beauty and ancient ideals. The contradiction of such sentiments with the well-established ideology of the Renaissance led to the emergence of Florentine mannerism. Painting in this style is characterized by a contrived color palette and broken lines. The Venetian masters of that time - Titian and Palladio - formed their own directions of development, which had few points of contact with the manifestations of the crisis in art.

In addition to the Italian Renaissance, attention should be paid to the Northern Renaissance. Artists who lived north of the Alps were less influenced by ancient art. In their work, the influence of the Gothic is traced, which survived until the onset of the Baroque era. The great figures of the Northern Renaissance are Albrecht Durer, Lucas Cranach the Elder, Pieter Bruegel the Elder.

The cultural heritage of the great artists of the Renaissance is priceless. The name of each of them is anxiously and carefully preserved in the memory of mankind, since the one who wore it was a unique diamond with many facets.

The Renaissance era caused profound changes in all areas of culture - philosophy, science and art. One of them is. that is becoming more and more independent of religion, ceases to be a "servant of theology", although it is still far from complete independence. As in other areas of culture, the teachings of ancient thinkers, primarily Plato and Aristotle, are being revived in philosophy. Marsilio Ficino founded the Platonic Academy in Florence, translated the works of the great Greek into Latin. Aristotle's ideas returned to Europe even earlier, before the Renaissance. During the Renaissance, according to Luther, it is he, not Christ, who "rules in European universities."

Together with ancient teachings, natural philosophy, or philosophy of nature. It is preached by such philosophers as B. Telesio, T. Campanella, D. Bruno. Their works develop the idea that philosophy should study not a supernatural God, but nature itself, that nature obeys its own, internal laws, that the basis of knowledge is experience and observation, and not divine revelation that man is part of nature.

The spread of natural philosophical views was facilitated by scientific discoveries. The main one was heliocentric theory N. Copernicus, who made a real revolution in the idea of ​​the world.

It should be noted, however, that the scientific and philosophical views of that time are still influenced by religion and theology. This kind of view often takes the form pantheism, in which the existence of God is not denied, but He dissolves in nature, is identified with it. To this must also be added the influence of the so-called occult sciences - astrology, alchemy, mysticism, magic, etc. All this takes place even with such a philosopher as D. Bruno.

The most significant changes the Renaissance brought about in artistic culture, art. It is in this area that the break with the Middle Ages turned out to be the deepest and most radical.

In the Middle Ages, art was largely of an applied nature, it was woven into life itself and was supposed to decorate it. In the Renaissance, art for the first time acquires an intrinsic value, it becomes an independent area of ​​beauty. At the same time, for the first time a purely artistic, aesthetic feeling is formed in the perceiving viewer, for the first time a love for art is awakened for its own sake, and not for the purpose it serves.

Never before has art enjoyed such high esteem and respect. Even in ancient Greece, the work of an artist was noticeably inferior to the activity of a politician and a citizen in its social significance. An even more modest place was occupied by the artist in ancient Rome.

Now place and role of the artist increase immeasurably in society. For the first time, he is seen as an independent and respected professional, scientist and thinker, a unique personality. In the Renaissance, art is perceived as one of the most powerful means of cognition and in this capacity is equated with science. Leonardo da Vinci views science and art as two completely equal ways of studying nature. He writes: "Painting is a science and a legitimate daughter of nature."

Art is even more highly valued as creativity. In terms of his creative abilities, the Renaissance artist is equated to God the creator. Hence it is clear why Raphael received the addition of "Divine" to his name. For the same reasons, Dante's Comedy was also called Divine.

In art itself, profound changes are taking place. It makes a decisive turn from a medieval symbol and sign to a realistic image and reliable depiction. The means of artistic expression are becoming new. They are now based on linear and aerial perspective, three-dimensionality of volume, and the doctrine of proportions. Art strives to be true to reality in everything, to achieve objectivity, reliability and vitality.

The Renaissance was primarily Italian. Therefore, it is not surprising that it was in Italy that art during this period reached its highest rise and flourishing. It is here that there are dozens of names of titans, geniuses, great and simply talented artists. Other countries also have great names, but Italy is beyond competition.

In the Italian Renaissance, several stages are usually distinguished:

• Proto-Renaissance: second half of the 13th century - XIV century.
• Early Renaissance: almost the entire 15th century.
• High Renaissance: late 15th century - the first third of the 16th century.
• Late Renaissance: the last two thirds of the 16th century.

The main figures of the Proto-Renaissance are the poet Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) and the painter Giotto (1266 / 67-1337).

Fate presented Dante with many trials. For his participation in the political struggle, he was persecuted, he wandered, died in a foreign land, in Ravenna. His contribution to culture goes beyond poetry. He wrote not only love lyrics, but also philosophical and political treatises. Dante is the creator of the Italian literary language. Sometimes he is called the last poet of the Middle Ages and the first poet of modern times. These two principles - old and new - are really closely intertwined in his work.

Dante's first works - "New Life" and "Feast" - are lyrical poems of love content, dedicated to his beloved Beatrice, whom he met once in Florence and who died seven years after their meeting. The poet kept his love for the rest of his life. In its genre, Dante's lyrics are in the mainstream of medieval courtly poetry, where the object of praise is the image of the "Beautiful Lady". However, the feelings expressed by the poet already belong to the Renaissance. They are caused by real meetings and events, filled with sincere warmth, marked with a unique personality.

The pinnacle of Dante's creativity was "The Divine Comedy", Which took a special place in the history of world culture. By its construction, this poem is also in the mainstream of medieval traditions. It tells about the adventures of a man who fell into the afterlife. The poem has three parts - Hell, Purgatory and Paradise, each of which has 33 songs written in three-line stanzas.

The repeated number "three" directly echoes the Christian doctrine of the Trinity. In the course of the story, Dante strictly follows many of the requirements of Christianity. In particular, he does not admit his companion through the nine circles of hell and purgatory - the Roman poet Virgil - to heaven, for a pagan is deprived of such a right. Here the poet is accompanied by his deceased beloved Beatrice.

However, in his thoughts and judgments, in his attitude to the characters depicted and their sins. Dante often and very significantly diverges from Christian teaching. So. instead of the Christian censure of sensual love as a sin, he speaks of the “law of love,” according to which sensual love is included in the nature of life itself. Dante is sympathetic to the love of Francesca and Paolo. although their love is associated with Francesca's betrayal of her husband. The spirit of Renaissance wins against Dante in other cases as well.

Among the outstanding Italian poets are also Francesco Petrarca. In world culture, he is known primarily for his sonnets. At the same time, he was a large-scale thinker, philosopher and historian. He is rightfully considered the founder of the entire Renaissance culture.

Petrarch's work is also partly within the framework of medieval courtly lyrics. Like Dante, he had a sweetheart named Laura, to whom he dedicated his "Book of Songs". At the same time, Petrarch more decisively breaks ties with medieval culture. In his works, the expressed feelings - love, pain, despair, longing - appear much more acute and naked. The personality principle sounds stronger in them.

Another outstanding representative of literature was Giovanni Boccaccio(1313-1375). author of the world famous " Decameron ". The principle of building his collection of short stories and the plot of Boccaccio borrows from the Middle Ages. Everything else is imbued with the spirit of the Renaissance.

The main characters of the short stories are ordinary and common people. They are written in surprisingly bright, lively, colloquial language. There are no boring lectures in them, on the contrary, many short stories literally sparkle with love of life and fun. The plots of some of them are of a love and erotic character. In addition to The Decameron, Boccaccio also wrote the novella Fiametta, which is considered the first psychological novel in Western literature.

Giotto di Bondone is the most prominent representative of the Italian Proto-Renaissance in the visual arts. Its main genre was fresco painting. All of them are written on biblical and mythological subjects, depict scenes from the life of the Holy Family, evangelists, saints. However, in the interpretation of these subjects, the Renaissance principle clearly prevails. In his work, Giotto abandons medieval convention and turns to realism and believability. It is for him that the merit of the revival of painting as an artistic value in itself is recognized.

In his works, the natural landscape is depicted quite realistically, on which trees, rocks, temples are clearly visible. All the characters involved, including the saints themselves, appear as living people, endowed with physical flesh, human feelings and passions. Their clothes outline the natural shapes of their bodies. Giotto's works are characterized by bright color and picturesqueness, subtle plasticity.

The main creation of Giotto is the painting of the Capella del Arena in Padua, which tells about the events in the life of the Holy Family. The strongest impression is made by the wall cycle, which includes the scenes "Flight into Egypt", "Kiss of Judas", "Lamentation of Christ".

All the characters depicted in the paintings look natural and authentic. The position of their bodies, gestures, emotional state, looks, faces - all this is shown with rare psychological convincingness. At the same time, the behavior of each strictly corresponds to the role assigned to him. Each scene has a unique atmosphere.

Thus, in the scene "Flight to Egypt", a restrained and generally calm emotional tone prevails. “Kiss of Judas” is filled with stormy dynamism, sharp and decisive actions of the characters who literally grappled with each other. And only two main participants - Judas and Christ - froze motionless and lead the duel with their eyes.

The scene "Lamentation of Christ" is marked by a special drama. She is filled with tragic despair, unbearable pain and suffering, inconsolable grief and sorrow.

Early Renaissance finally approved new aesthetic and artistic principles of art. At the same time, biblical stories are still very popular. However, their interpretation becomes completely different, there is already little left of the Middle Ages in it.

Homeland Early renaissance became Florence, and the architect is considered the "fathers of the Renaissance" Philippe Brunelleschi(1377-1446), sculptor Donatello(1386-1466). painter Masaccio (1401 -1428).

Brunelleschi made a huge contribution to the development of architecture. He laid the foundations of Renaissance architecture, discovered new forms that existed for centuries. He did much to develop the laws of perspective.

Brunelleschi's most significant work was the erection of a dome over the already finished structure of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence. He was faced with an extremely difficult task, since the required dome had to be huge - about 50 m in diameter. With the help of an original design, he brilliantly gets out of a difficult situation. Thanks to the solution found, not only the dome itself turned out to be surprisingly light and, as it were, hovering over the city, but the entire building of the cathedral acquired harmony and majesty.

The famous Pazzi Chapel, erected in the courtyard of the Church of Santa Croce in Florence, was no less wonderful work of Brunelleschi. It is a small, rectangular building covered in the center by a dome. Inside it is faced with white marble. Like other buildings of Brunelleschi, the chapel is distinguished by simplicity and clarity, grace and grace.

Brunelleschi's work is notable for the fact that he goes beyond religious buildings and creates magnificent buildings of secular architecture. An excellent example of such architecture is the orphanage, built in the shape of the letter "P", with a covered gallery-loggia.

The Florentine sculptor Donatello is one of the most prominent creators of the Early Renaissance. He worked in a wide variety of genres, showing genuine innovation everywhere. In his work, Donatello uses the ancient heritage, relying on a deep study of nature, boldly updating the means of artistic expression.

He participates in the development of the theory of linear perspective, revives the sculptural portrait and the depiction of the nude, casts the first bronze monument. The images he created are the embodiment of the humanistic ideal of a harmoniously developed personality. With his work, Donatello had a great influence on the subsequent development of European sculpture.

Donatello's desire to idealize the person depicted was clearly manifested in statue of young David. In this work, David appears young, beautiful, full of mental and physical strength of young men. The beauty of his naked body is accentuated by a gracefully curved torso. A young face expresses thoughtfulness and sadness. This statue was followed by a number of nude figures in Renaissance sculpture.

The heroic beginning is strong and distinct in statue of st. George, which became one of the heights of Donatello's creativity. Here he fully managed to embody the idea of ​​a strong personality. Before us is a tall, slender, courageous, calm and confident warrior. In this work, the master creatively develops the best traditions of antique sculpture.

Donatello's classic work is the bronze statue of the commander Gattamelatta - the first equestrian monument in the art of the Renaissance. Here the great sculptor reaches the ultimate level of artistic and philosophical generalization, which brings this work closer to antiquity.

At the same time, Donatello created a portrait of a concrete and unique personality. The commander appears as a real renaissance hero, a courageous, calm, self-confident person. The statue is distinguished by laconic forms, clear and precise plastic, natural pose of the rider and horse. Thanks to this, the monument has become a real masterpiece of monumental sculpture.

In the last period of creativity Donatello creates a bronze group "Judith and Holofernes". This work is filled with dynamics and drama: Judith is depicted at the moment when she raises her sword over the already wounded Holofernes. to finish it off.

Masaccio is considered to be one of the main figures of the Early Renaissance. He continues and develops the trends coming from Giotto. Masaccio lived only 27 years old and managed to do little. However, the frescoes he created became a real school of painting for subsequent Italian artists. According to Vasari, a contemporary of the High Renaissance and an authoritative critic, "no master has come so close to modern masters as Masaccio."

The main creation of Masaccio is the frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel of the Church of Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence, telling about episodes from the legends of St. Peter, as well as depicting two biblical stories - "The Fall" and "Expulsion from Paradise".

Although the frescoes tell of the miracles performed by St. Peter, there is nothing supernatural and mystical about them. The depicted Christ, Peter, the apostles and other participants in the events appear as completely earthly people. They are endowed with individual characteristics and behave in a completely natural and human way. In particular, in the scene of Baptism, a naked young man trembling from the cold is surprisingly reliably shown. Masaccio builds his composition using the means of not only linear, but also aerial perspective.

From the whole cycle, special emphasis deserves fresco "Expulsion from Paradise". She is a true masterpiece of painting. The fresco is extremely laconic, there is nothing superfluous in it. Against the background of a vague landscape, the figures of Adam and Eve, who left the gates of Paradise, are clearly visible, above which an angel with a sword hovers. All attention is focused on Mom and Eve.

Masaccio was the first in the history of painting to be able to write a nude body so convincingly and reliably, to convey its natural proportions, to give it stability and movement. The inner state of the heroes is just as convincing and vividly expressed. Walking wide, Adam lowered his head in shame and covered his face with his hands. Sobbing, Eve threw her head back in despair with her mouth open. This fresco opens a new era in art.

Made by Masaccio was continued by artists such as Andrea Mantegna(1431 -1506) and Sandro Botticelli(1455-1510). The first became famous primarily for his paintings, among which a special place is occupied by frescoes telling about the last episodes of the life of St. Jacob - the procession to the execution and the execution itself. Botticelli preferred easel painting. His most famous paintings are Spring and The Birth of Venus.

From the end of the 15th century, when Italian art reaches its highest rise, begins High Renaissance. For Italy, this period was extremely difficult. Fragmented and therefore defenseless, it was literally devastated, plundered and drained of blood by invasions from France, Spain, Germany and Turkey. However, art during this period, oddly enough, is experiencing an unprecedented flowering. It was at this time that such titans as Leonardo da Vinci are doing. Raphael. Michelangelo, Titian.

In architecture, the beginning of the High Renaissance is associated with creativity Donato Bramante(1444-1514). It was he who created the style that determined the development of architecture of this period.

One of his early works was the church of the Santa Maria della Grazie monastery in Milan, in the refectory of which Leonardo da Vinci will paint his famous fresco "The Last Supper". Its glory begins with a small chapel called Tempetto(1502), built in Rome and became a kind of "manifesto" of the High Renaissance. The chapel has the shape of a rotunda, it is distinguished by simplicity of architectural means, harmony of parts and rare expressiveness. This is a real little masterpiece.

The pinnacle of Bramante's creativity is the reconstruction of the Vatican and the transformation of its buildings into a single ensemble. He also owns the development of the project for the Cathedral of St. Peter, in which Michelangelo will make changes and begin to implement.

See also:, Michelangelo Buonarroti

In the art of the Italian Renaissance, a special place is occupied by Venice. The school that developed here was significantly different from the schools of Florence, Rome, Milan or Bologna. The latter gravitated towards stable traditions and continuity; they were not inclined towards radical renewal. It was on these schools that classicism of the 17th century was based. and neoclassicism of subsequent centuries.

The Venetian school acted as their kind of counterbalance and antipode. The spirit of innovation and radical, revolutionary renewal reigned here. Of the representatives of other Italian schools, Leonardo was the closest to Venice. Perhaps it was here that his passion for searching and experimenting could find proper understanding and recognition. In the famous dispute between "old and new" artists, the latter relied on the example of Venice. This is where the tendencies that led to the Baroque and Romanticism began. And although the romantics honored Raphael, Titian and Veronese were their real gods. In Venice, El Greco received his creative charge, which allowed him to shake Spanish painting. Velasques passed through Venice. The same can be said for the Flemish painters Rubens and Van Dyck.

As a port city, Venice found itself at the crossroads of economic and trade routes. She was influenced by Northern Germany, Byzantium and the East. Venice has become a place of pilgrimage for many artists. A. Durer was here twice - at the end of the 15th century. and the beginning of the XVI century. It was visited by Goethe (1790). Here Wagner listened to the singing of the gondoliers (1857), under whose inspiration he wrote the second act of Tristan and Isolde. Nietzsche also listened to the singing of the gondoliers, calling it the singing of the soul.

The proximity of the sea evoked fluid and mobile shapes, rather than clear geometric structures. Venice gravitated not so much to reason with its strict rules, as to feelings, from which the amazing poetry of Venetian art was born. The focus of this poetry was nature - its visible and felt materiality, woman - the exciting beauty of her flesh, music - born from the play of colors and light and from the enchanting sounds of a spiritualized nature.

The artists of the Venetian school did not give preference to form and drawing, but to color, the play of light and shadow. Depicting nature, they tried to convey its impulses and movement, variability and fluidity. They saw the beauty of the female body not so much in the harmony of forms and proportions as in the most living and feeling flesh.

Realistic plausibility and reliability were not enough for them. They strove to reveal the riches inherent in painting itself. It is Venice that deserves the credit for the discovery of a pure pictorial beginning, or picturesqueness in its purest form. Venetian artists were the first to show the possibility of separating the picturesque from objects and forms, the possibility of solving the problems of painting with the help of one color, purely pictorial means, the possibility of considering the picturesque as an end in itself. All subsequent painting, based on expression and expressiveness, will follow this path. According to some experts, one can go from Titian to Rubens and Rembrandt, then to Delacroix, and from him to Gauguin, Van Gogh, Cezanne, etc.

The founder of the Venetian school is Giorgione(1476-1510). In his work, he acted as a real innovator. The secular principle finally wins with him, and instead of biblical subjects, he prefers to write on mythological and literary themes. In his work, the easel painting is affirmed, which no longer resembles an icon or an altar image.

Giorgione opens a new era in painting, being the first to paint from nature. Depicting nature, for the first time, he shifts the emphasis to mobility, variability and fluidity. An excellent example of this is his painting "The Thunderstorm". It was Giorgione who began to look for the secret of painting in light and its transitions, in the play of light and shadow, acting as the predecessor of Caravaggio and caravaggism.

Giorgione created works of different genres and themes - "Rural Concert" and "Judith". His most famous work was Sleeping Venus". This picture is devoid of any plot. She praises the beauty and charm of the naked female body, representing "nakedness for the sake of nakedness."

The head of the Venetian school is Titian(c. 1489-1576). His work - along with the work of Leonardo, Raphael and Michelangelo - is the pinnacle of Renaissance art. Much of his long life falls on the Late Renaissance.

In the work of Titian, the art of the Renaissance reaches its highest rise and flowering. His works combine the creative search and innovation of Leonardo, the beauty and perfection of Raphael, the spiritual depth, drama and tragedy of Michelangelo. They have an extraordinary sensibility, thanks to which they have a powerful effect on the viewer. Titian's works are surprisingly musical and melodic.

As Rubens notes, together with Titian, painting acquired its own flavor, and according to Delacroix and Van Gogh - music. His canvases are painted with an open stroke, which is light, free and transparent at the same time. It is in his works that color, as it were, dissolves and absorbs form, and the pictorial principle for the first time acquires autonomy, appears in its pure form. Realism in his creations turns into enchanting and subtle lyricism.

In the works of the first period, Titian glorifies the careless joy of life, the enjoyment of earthly goods. He glorifies the sensual principle, the human flesh bursting with health, the eternal beauty of the body, the physical perfection of man. His canvases such as "Earthly and Heavenly Love", "The Feast of Venus", "Bacchus and Ariadne", "Danae", "Venus and Adonis" are dedicated to this.

The sensual principle prevails in the picture. "Penitent Magdalene”, Although it is dedicated to a dramatic situation. But here, too, the penitent sinner has sensual flesh, a captivating body that radiates light, full and sensual lips, ruddy cheeks and golden hair. The painting "Boy with Dogs" is filled with soulful lyricism.

In the works of the second period, the sensory principle is preserved, but it is complemented by growing psychologism and drama. In general, Titian makes a gradual transition from the physical and sensual to the spiritual and dramatic. The changes taking place in Titian's work are clearly visible in the embodiment of themes and plots to which the great artist turned twice. A typical example in this regard is the painting "Saint Sebastian". In the first version, the fate of a lonely, abandoned sufferer does not seem too sad. On the contrary, the depicted saint is endowed with vitality and physical beauty. In a later version of the painting, which is in the Hermitage, the same image takes on tragic features.

An even more striking example is the version of the painting "The Crowning of Thorns", dedicated to an episode from the life of Christ. In the first of them, kept in the Louvre. Christ appears as a physically beautiful and strong athlete, capable of repelling his rapists. In the Munich version, created twenty years later, the same episode is conveyed much deeper, more complex and more meaningful. Christ is depicted in a white cloak, his eyes are closed, he calmly endures beating and humiliation. Now the main thing is not crowning and beating, not a physical phenomenon, but psychological and spiritual. The picture is filled with deep tragedy, it expresses the triumph of spirit, spiritual nobility over physical strength.

In the later works of Titian, the tragic sounding becomes more and more intensified. This is evidenced by the painting "Lamentation of Christ".

The first forerunners of Renaissance art appeared in Italy in the 14th century. The artists of this time, Pietro Cavallini (1259-1344), Simone Martini (1284-1344) and (primarily) Giotto (1267-1337), when creating canvases of traditional religious themes, they began to use new artistic techniques: building a volumetric composition, using a landscape in the background, which allowed them to make images more realistic and animated. This sharply distinguished their work from the previous iconographic tradition, replete with conventions in the image.
The term is used to denote their creativity Proto-Renaissance (1300s - "Trecento") .

Giotto di Bondone (c. 1267-1337) - Italian artist and architect of the Proto-Renaissance era. One of the key figures in the history of Western art. Having overcome the Byzantine icon-painting tradition, he became the true founder of the Italian school of painting, developed a completely new approach to depicting space. Giotto's works were inspired by Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo.


Early Renaissance (1400s - "Quattrocento").

At the beginning of the 15th century Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446), Florentine scholar and architect.
Brunelleschi wanted to make the perception of the terms and theaters he reconstructed more visual and tried to create geometrically perspective pictures from his plans for a specific point of view. In this search was discovered direct perspective.

This allowed artists to obtain perfect images of three-dimensional space on the flat canvas of the painting.

_________

Another important step towards the Renaissance was the emergence of non-religious, secular art. Portrait and landscape have established themselves as independent genres. Even religious subjects acquired a different interpretation - the artists of the Renaissance began to view their characters as heroes with pronounced individual traits and human motivation for actions.

The most famous artists of this period are Masaccio (1401-1428), Mazolino (1383-1440), Benozzo Gozzoli (1420-1497), Piero Della Francesco (1420-1492), Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506), Giovanni Bellini (1430-1516), Antonello da Messina (1430-1479), Domenico Ghirlandaio (1449-1494), Sandro Botticelli (1447-1515).

Masaccio (1401-1428) - the famous Italian painter, the greatest master of the Florentine school, reformer of painting of the Quattrocento era.

Fresco. Miracle with statir.

Painting. Crucifixion.

Piero Della Francesco (1420-1492). The master's works are distinguished by majestic solemnity, nobility and harmony of images, generalization of forms, compositional balance, proportionality, accuracy of perspective constructions, and a soft scale full of light.

Fresco. The story of the Queen of Sheba. Church of San Francesco in Arezzo

Sandro Botticelli(1445-1510) - the great Italian painter, representative of the Florentine school of painting.

Spring.

Birth of Venus.

High Renaissance ("Cinquecento").
The highest flowering of Renaissance art was for the first quarter of the 16th century.
Work Sansovino (1486-1570), Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Raphael Santi (1483-1520), Michelangelo Buonarotti (1475-1564), Giorgione (1476-1510), Titian (1477-1576), Antonio Correggio (1489-1534) make up the golden fund of European art.

Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (Florence) (1452-1519) - Italian artist (painter, sculptor, architect) and scientist (anatomist, naturalist), inventor, writer.

Self-portrait

Lady with an ermine. 1490. Czartoryski Museum, Krakow

Mona Lisa (1503-1505 / 1506)

Leonardo da Vinci achieved high skill in conveying facial expressions and body of a person, methods of conveying space, building a composition. At the same time, his works create a harmonious image of a person that meets humanistic ideals.

Madonna Litta. 1490-1491. Hermitage Museum.

Madonna Benoit (Madonna with a flower). 1478-1480

Madonna of the Carnation. 1478

During his life, Leonardo da Vinci made thousands of notes and drawings on anatomy, but did not publish his work. Making autopsies on the bodies of people and animals, he accurately conveyed the structure of the skeleton and internal organs, including small details. According to the professor of clinical anatomy Peter Abrams, da Vinci's scientific work was ahead of its time by 300 years and in many ways surpassed the famous "Grey's Anatomy".

List of inventions, both real and attributed to him:

Parachute, toforest castle, inbike, tankh, llightweight portable bridges for the army, phorn, toatapult, prev, dwoolens telescope.

Later, these innovations were developed Raphael Santi (1483-1520) - a great painter, graphic artist and architect, a representative of the Umbrian school.

Self-portrait. 1483

Michelangelo di Lodovico di Leonardo di Buonarroti Simoni(1475-1564) - Italian sculptor, artist, architect, poet, thinker.

Michelangelo Buonarroti's paintings and sculptures are full of heroic pathos and, at the same time, a tragic sense of the crisis of humanism. His paintings glorify the strength and power of a person, the beauty of his body, while emphasizing his loneliness in the world.

The genius of Michelangelo left an imprint not only on the art of the Renaissance, but also on all further world culture. Its activities are mainly associated with two Italian cities - Florence and Rome.

However, the artist was able to realize his most ambitious ideas precisely in painting, where he acted as a true innovator of color and form.
By order of Pope Julius II, he painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel (1508-1512), representing the biblical story from the creation of the world to the flood and including more than 300 figures. In 1534-1541 in the same Sistine Chapel for Pope Paul III he performed the grandiose, full of dramatic fresco "The Last Judgment".
Sistine Chapel 3D.

The works of Giorgione and Titian are distinguished by their interest in the landscape, the poeticization of the plot. Both artists achieved great skill in the art of portraiture, with the help of which they conveyed the character and rich inner world of their characters.

Giorgio Barbarelli da Castelfranco ( Giorgione) (1476 / 147-1510) - Italian artist, representative of the Venetian school of painting.

Sleeping Venus. 1510

Judith. 1504g

Titian Vecellio (1488 / 1490-1576) - Italian painter, the largest representative of the Venetian school of the High and Late Renaissance.

Titian painted pictures on biblical and mythological subjects, he became famous as a portrait painter. He received orders from kings and popes, cardinals, dukes and princes. Titian was not even thirty years old when he was recognized as the best painter of Venice.

Self-portrait. 1567g

Venus of Urbinskaya. 1538

Portrait of Tommaso Mosti. 1520

Late Renaissance.
After the sack of Rome by imperial forces in 1527, the Italian Renaissance entered a period of crisis. Already in the work of the late Raphael, a new artistic line was outlined, which received the name mannerism.
This era is characterized by inflated and broken lines, elongation or even deformation of figures, often nude, tension and unnatural poses, unusual or bizarre effects associated with size, lighting or perspective, the use of a caustic chromatic scale, overloaded composition, etc. mannerism Parmigianino , Pontormo , Bronzino- lived and worked at the court of the dukes of the Medici house in Florence. Later, mannerist fashion spread throughout Italy and beyond.

Girolamo Francesco Maria Mazzola (Parmigianino - "resident of Parma") (1503-1540,) Italian artist and printmaker, representative of mannerism.

Self-portrait. 1540

Portrait of a woman. 1530.

Pontormo (1494-1557) - Italian painter, representative of the Florentine school, one of the founders of Mannerism.


Art came to replace Mannerism in the 1590s baroque (transitional figures - Tintoretto and El Greco ).

Jacopo Robusti, better known as Tintoretto (1518 or 1519-1594) - painter of the Venetian school of the late Renaissance.

The Last Supper. 1592-1594. Church of San Giorgio Maggiore, Venice.

El Greco ("Greek" Domenikos Theotokopoulos ) (1541-1614) - Spanish artist. By origin - Greek, a native of the island of Crete.
El Greco had no contemporary followers, and his genius was rediscovered almost 300 years after his death.
El Greco studied in the studio of Titian, but, however, the technique of his painting is significantly different from that of his teacher. El Greco's works are characterized by speed and expressiveness of execution, which bring them closer to modern painting.

Christ on the cross. OK. 1577. Private collection.

Trinity. 1579 Prado.

In difficult times for Italy, a short "golden age" of the Italian Renaissance begins - the so-called High Renaissance, the highest point of flourishing of Italian art. Thus, the High Renaissance coincided with a period of fierce struggle of Italian cities for independence. The art of this time was permeated with humanism, faith in the creative powers of man, in the unlimitedness of his possibilities, in the rational structure of the world, in the triumph of progress. In art, the problems of civic duty, high moral qualities, heroic deeds, the image of a beautiful, harmoniously developed, strong in spirit and body, a human hero, who managed to rise above the level of everyday life, have come to the fore. The search for such an ideal led art to synthesis, generalization, to the disclosure of the general laws of phenomena, to the identification of their logical relationship. The art of the High Renaissance abandons particulars, insignificant details in the name of a generalized image, in the name of striving for a harmonious synthesis of the beautiful sides of life. This is one of the main differences between the High Renaissance and the early one.

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) was the first artist to express this distinction. The first teacher of Leonardo was Andrea Verrocchio. The figure of an angel in the teacher's painting "Baptism" already clearly demonstrates the difference in the perception of the world by the artist of the past era and the new era: no frontal flatness of Verrocchio, the finest chiaroscuro modeling of volume and an extraordinary spirituality of the image. ... At the time of leaving the workshop of Verrocchio, researchers attribute the "Madonna with a flower" ("Madonna Benoit", as she was called earlier, by the name of the owners). During this period, Leonardo, undoubtedly, was under the influence of Botticelli for some time. From the 80s of the XV century. two unfinished compositions by Leonardo have survived: The Adoration of the Magi and St. Jerome ". Probably in the mid-80s, Madonna Litta was created in the old technique of tempera, in the image of which the type of Leonardo's female beauty found expression: heavy half-closed eyelids and a barely perceptible smile give the Madonna's face a special spirituality.

Combining scientific and creative principles, possessing both logical and artistic thinking, Leonardo all his life was engaged in scientific research along with the fine arts; distracted, he seemed slow and left behind a few works of art. At the Milanese court, Leonardo worked as an artist, scientist, technician, inventor, mathematician and anatomist. The first great piece that he performed in Milan was "Madonna of the Rocks" (or "Madonna of the Grotto"). This is the first monumental altarpiece of the High Renaissance, interesting also because it fully expressed the peculiarities of Leonardo's style of painting.

The greatest work of Leonardo in Milan, the highest achievement of his art, was the painting of the wall of the refectory of the monastery of Santa Maria della Grazie on the subject of The Last Supper (1495-1498). Christ meets for the last time at supper with his disciples to announce to them the betrayal of one of them. For Leonardo, art and science were inseparable. Being engaged in art, he did scientific research, experiments, observations, he went through the perspective in the field of optics and physics, through the problems of proportions - in anatomy and mathematics, etc. "The Last Supper" completes a whole stage in the artist's scientific research. It is also a new stage in art.

Leonardo broke away from studies in anatomy, geometry, fortification, land reclamation, linguistics, versification, music to work on the "Horse" - the equestrian monument to Francesco Sforza, for the sake of which he first of all came to Milan and which in the early 90s he performed in full size in clay. The monument was not destined to be embodied in bronze: in 1499 the French invaded Milan and Gascon crossbowmen shot the equestrian monument. Since 1499, the years of Leonardo's wanderings begin: Mantua, Venice and, finally, the artist's hometown - Florence, where he paints the cardboard “St. Anna with Maria on her knees ", according to which he creates an oil painting in Milan (where he returned in 1506)

In Florence, Leonardo began another painting: a portrait of the wife of the merchant del Giocondo Mona Lisa, which has become one of the most famous paintings in the world.

The portrait of Mona Lisa Gioconda is a decisive step towards the development of Renaissance art

For the first time, the portrait genre has become on a par with compositions on religious and mythological themes. With all the indisputable physiognomic similarities, the portraits of Quattrocento differed, if not external, then internal constraint. The majesty of Mona Lisa is already communicated by the very comparison of her emphatically three-dimensional figure, which is strongly pushed to the edge of the canvas, with a landscape visible from afar with rocks and streams, melting, beckoning, elusive and therefore fantastic for all the reality of the motive.

Leonardo in 1515 at the suggestion of the French king Francis I left for France forever.

Leonardo was the greatest artist of his time, a genius who opened new horizons for art. He left behind a few works, but each of them was a stage in the history of culture. Leonardo is also known as a versatile scientist. His scientific discoveries, for example, his research in the field of flying vehicles, are of interest in our age of astronautics. Thousands of pages of Leonardo's manuscripts, covering literally all areas of knowledge, testify to the universality of his genius.

The ideas of the monumental art of the Renaissance, in which the traditions of antiquity and the spirit of Christianity merged, found their most vivid expression in the work of Raphael (1483-1520). In his art, two main tasks found a mature solution: the plastic perfection of the human body, expressing the inner harmony of a comprehensively developed personality, in which Raphael followed antiquity, and a complex multi-figured composition that conveys all the diversity of the world. Raphael enriched these possibilities, achieving amazing freedom in the depiction of space and the movement of the human figure in it, impeccable harmony between the environment and man.

None of the masters of the Renaissance took so deeply and naturally the pagan essence of antiquity as Raphael; it is not without reason that he is considered an artist who most fully connected ancient traditions with Western European art of the new era.

Raphael Santi was born in 1483 in the city of Urbino, one of the centers of artistic culture in Italy, at the court of the Duke of Urbino, in the family of a court painter and poet, who was the first teacher of the future master

The early period of Raphael's work is perfectly characterized by a small painting in the form of a tondo "Madonna Conestabile", with its simplicity and laconicism of strictly selected details (for all the timidity of the composition) and the special, inherent in all of Raphael's works, subtle lyricism and a sense of peace. In 1500, Raphael left Urbino for Perugia to study in the studio of the famous Umbrian artist Perugino, under whose influence Mary's Betrothal was written (1504). The sense of rhythm, the proportionality of plastic masses, spatial intervals, the ratio of figures and the background, the coordination of the basic tones (in "The Betrothal" these are golden, red and green in combination with the pale blue background of the sky) and create the harmony that is already manifested in the early works of Raphael and distinguishes him from the artists of the previous era.

Throughout his life, Raphael has been looking for this image in the Madonna, his numerous works interpreting the image of the Madonna have won him worldwide fame. The artist's merit, first of all, is that he was able to embody all the subtle shades of feelings in the idea of ​​motherhood, to combine lyricism and deep emotionality with monumental grandeur. This can be seen in all his Madonnas, starting with the timid youthful "Madonna Conestabil": in "Madonna in the Green", "Madonna with a Goldfinch", "Madonna in the Chair" and especially in the pinnacle of Raphael's spirit and skill - in the "Sistine Madonna".

The Sistine Madonna is one of the most perfect works of Raphael in terms of language: the figure of Mary with the baby, strictly looming against the background of the sky, is united by a common rhythm of movement with the figures of St. The barbarians and Pope Sixtus II, whose gestures are addressed to the Madonna, as well as the gazes of two angels (more like putti, which is so characteristic of the Renaissance), are in the lower part of the composition. The figures are also united by a common golden color, as if personifying the Divine radiance. But the main thing is the type of the Madonna's face, which embodies the synthesis of the ancient ideal of beauty with the spirituality of the Christian ideal, which is so characteristic of the worldview of the High Renaissance.

The Sistine Madonna is a later work by Raphael.

At the beginning of the XVI century. Rome becomes the main cultural center of Italy. The art of the High Renaissance reaches its highest flowering in this city, where, by the will of the patronizing popes Julius II and Leo X, artists such as Bramante, Michelangelo and Raphael work at the same time.

Raphael paints the first two stanzas. In the Stanza della Senyatura (room of signatures, seals), he painted four frescoes-allegories of the main spheres of human spiritual activity: philosophy, poetry, theology and jurisprudence ("The School of Athens", "Parnassus", "Dispute", "Measure, Wisdom and Strength "In the second room, called the" Stanza of Eliodorus ", Raphael painted frescoes on historical and legendary subjects, glorifying the popes:" The Expulsion of Eliodorus "

It was common for medieval and early Renaissance art to depict arts and sciences in the form of individual allegorical figures. Raphael solved these themes in the form of multi-figure compositions, sometimes representing real group portraits, interesting both for their individualization and typicality.

The students also helped Raphael in painting the Vatican loggias adjoining the Pope's rooms, painted according to his sketches and under his supervision with motifs of antique ornaments drawn mainly from the newly opened antique grottoes (hence the name "grotesques").

Raphael has performed works of various genres. His gift as a decorator, as well as a director, a storyteller was fully manifested in a series of eight cardboards for tapestries for the Sistine Chapel on scenes from the life of the apostles Peter and Paul ("The Miraculous Catch of Fish", for example). These paintings during the XVI-XVIII centuries. served as a kind of standard for the classicists.

Raphael was also the greatest portrait painter of his era. ("Pope Julius II", "Leo X", the artist's friend the writer Castiglione, the beautiful "Donna Velata", etc.). And in his portraits, as a rule, inner balance and harmony prevail.

At the end of his life, Raphael was immensely loaded with a variety of works and orders. It is even difficult to imagine that all this could be done by one person. He was a central figure in the artistic life of Rome, after the death of Bramante (1514) he became the chief architect of the Cathedral of St. Peter, was in charge of archaeological excavations in Rome and its environs and the protection of ancient monuments.

Raphael died in 1520; his premature death was unexpected for his contemporaries. His ashes are buried in the Pantheon.

The third greatest master of the High Renaissance, Michelangelo, was much outlived by Leonardo and Raphael. The first half of his career fell on the heyday of the art of the High Renaissance, and the second - at the time of the Counter-Reformation and the beginning of the formation of baroque art. Of the brilliant galaxy of High Renaissance artists, Michelangelo surpassed everyone in the richness of images, civic pathos, sensitivity to changing public moods. Hence the creative embodiment of the collapse of Renaissance ideas.

Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) In 1488, in Florence, he began to carefully study ancient plastic. His relief "The Battle of the Centaurs" in terms of inner harmony is already a work of the High Renaissance. In 1496 the young artist leaves for Rome, where he creates his first works that brought him fame: "Bacchus" and "Pieta". Literally captured by the images of antiquity. "Pieta" - opens a number of works by the master on this subject and promotes him to the number of the first sculptors in Italy.

Returning to Florence in 1501, Michelangelo, on behalf of the Signoria, undertook to sculpt the figure of David from a marble block spoiled before him by an unlucky sculptor. In 1504 Michelangelo finished the famous statue, called "The Giant" by the Florentines, and erected by them in front of the Palazzo Vecchia, the town hall. The opening of the monument turned into a popular celebration. The image of David has inspired many Quattrocento artists. But Michelangelo portrays him not as a boy, like in Donatello and Verrocchio, but as young men in full bloom, and not after a battle, with the head of a giant at his feet, but before the battle, at the moment of the highest tension of forces. In the beautiful image of David, in his stern face, the sculptor conveyed the titanic power of passion, unyielding will, civic courage, the boundless power of a free man.

In 1504 Michelangelo (as already mentioned in connection with Leonardo) begins to work on the painting of the "Room of Five Hundred" in the Palazzo Signoria

In 1505, Pope Julius II invited Michelangelo to Rome to build a tomb for himself, but then refused the order and ordered a less grandiose painting of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel at the Vatican Palace.

Michelangelo worked alone on the painting of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, from 1508 to 1512, painting an area of ​​about 600 square meters. m (48x13 m) at a height of 18 m.

Michelangelo dedicated the central part of the ceiling to scenes of sacred history, starting from the creation of the world. These compositions are framed by a cornice, written, but creating the illusion of architecture, and are separated, also by picturesque, rods. Picturesque rectangles emphasize and enrich the real architecture of the plafond. Under the picturesque cornice, Michelangelo painted the prophets and sibyls (each figure is about three meters), in the lunettes (arches above the windows) he depicted episodes from the Bible and the ancestors of Christ as ordinary people busy with everyday affairs.

In the nine central compositions, the events of the first days of creation unfold, the story of Adam and Eve, the flood, and all these scenes, in fact, are a hymn to man inherent in him. Soon after the end of work in Sistine, Julius II died and his heirs returned to the idea of ​​a tombstone. In 1513-1516. Michelangelo performs the figure of Moses and slaves (captives) for this tombstone. The image of Moses is one of the strongest in the work of a mature master. He put into him the dream of a wise, courageous leader, full of titanic powers, expression, will-qualities that were so necessary then for the unification of his homeland. The figures of the slaves were not included in the final version of the tomb.

From 1520 to 1534 Michelangelo worked on one of the most significant and most tragic sculptural works - on the Medici Tomb (Florentine Church of San Lorenzo), which expresses all the experiences that fell to the lot of the master himself, and his hometown, and the whole the country as a whole. Since the late 1920s, Italy has literally been torn apart by both external and internal enemies. In 1527, hired soldiers defeated Rome, Protestants plundered the Catholic shrines of the eternal city. The Florentine bourgeoisie overthrows the Medici, who ruled again from 1510

In a mood of severe pessimism, in a state of increasing deep religiosity, Michelangelo is working on the Medici tomb. He himself constructs an extension to the Florentine church of San Lorenzo, a small but very high room covered with a dome, and decorates two walls of the sacristy (its interior) with sculptural tombstones. One wall is adorned with the figure of Lorenzo, the opposite one is Giuliano, and below at their feet are sarcophagi decorated with allegorical sculptural images - symbols of fast-flowing time: "Morning" and "Evening" - in the tombstone of Lorenzo, "Night, and" Day "- in the tombstone of Giuliano ...

Both images - Lorenzo and Giuliano - have no portrait resemblance, which differs from the traditional solutions of the 15th century.

Paul III immediately after his election began insistently demanding that Michelangelo fulfill this plan, and in 1534, interrupting work on the tomb, which he completed only in 1545, Michelangelo left for Rome, where he began his second work in the Sistine Chapel - to painting "The Last Judgment" (1535-1541) - a grandiose creation that expressed the tragedy of the human race. The features of the new artistic system manifested themselves in this work of Michelangelo even more vividly. The creating judgment, the punishing Christ is placed in the center of the composition, and around him in a circular motion are depicted sinners falling to hell, righteous men ascending to heaven, dead men rising from their graves for God's judgment. Everything is full of horror, despair, anger, confusion.

Painter, sculptor, poet, Michelangelo was also a brilliant architect. He executed the staircase of the Florentine library of Laurenziana, decorated the Capitol Square in Rome, erected the Pius Gate (Porta Pia), since 1546 he has been working on the Cathedral of St. Peter, begun by Bramante. Michelangelo owns the drawing and drawing of the dome, which was completed after the death of the master and is still one of the main dominants in the city's panorama.

Michelangelo died in Rome at the age of 89. His body was taken to Florence at night and buried in the oldest church in his hometown of Santa Croce. The historical significance of Michelangelo's art, its impact on contemporaries and subsequent eras can hardly be overestimated. Some foreign researchers interpret him as the first artist and architect of the Baroque. But most of all he is interesting as a bearer of the great realistic traditions of the Renaissance.

George Barbarelli da Castelfranco, nicknamed Giorgione (1477-1510), is a direct follower of his teacher and a typical artist of the High Renaissance. He was the first on Venetian soil to turn to literary themes, to mythological subjects. Landscape, nature and the beautiful naked human body became for him an object of art and an object of worship.

Already in the first known work "Madonna of Castelfranco" (about 1505) Giorgione appears as a fully developed artist; the image of the Madonna is full of poetry, pensive dreaminess, permeated with that mood of sadness, which is characteristic of all female images of Giorgione. Over the last five years of his life, the artist created his best works performed in oil technique, the main one in the Venetian school at that time. ... In the painting of 1506 "The Thunderstorm" by Giorgione depicts man as a part of nature. A woman nursing a child, a young man with a staff (who can be mistaken for a warrior with a halberd) are not united by any action, but are united in this majestic landscape by a common mood, a common state of mind. The image of "Sleeping Venus" (about 1508-1510) is permeated with spirituality and poetry. Her body is written lightly, freely, gracefully, it is not for nothing that researchers talk about the "musicality" of Giorgione's rhythms; it is not devoid of sensual charm. "Rural Concert" (1508-1510)

Titian Vecellio (1477? -1576) is the greatest painter of the Venetian Renaissance. He created works on both mythological and Christian subjects, worked in the portrait genre, his coloristic talent is exceptional, his compositional ingenuity is inexhaustible, and his happy longevity allowed him to leave behind him a rich creative heritage that had a huge impact on descendants.

Already in 1516 he became the first painter of the republic, from the 20s - the most famous artist of Venice

Around 1520, the Duke of Ferrara commissioned him a series of paintings in which Titian appears as a singer of antiquity, who was able to feel and, most importantly, to embody the spirit of paganism (Bacchanalia, Feast of Venus, Bacchus and Ariadne).

Wealthy Venetian patricians commissioned Titian for altar images, and he creates huge icons: "The Ascension of Mary", "Madonna of Pesaro"

"Introduction of Mary into the Temple" (about 1538), "Venus" (about 1538)

(group portrait of Pope Paul III with his nephews Ottavio and Alexander Farnese, 1545-1546)

He still writes a lot on ancient subjects ("Venus and Adonis", "The Shepherd and the Nymph", "Diana and Actaeon", "Jupiter and Antiope"), but increasingly turns to Christian themes, to scenes of martyrdom, in which pagan cheerfulness, antique harmony is replaced by a tragic attitude ("The Flagellation of Christ", "The Penitent Mary Magdalene", "St. Sebastian", "Lamentation"),

But at the end of the century, and here, the features of an impending new era in art, a new artistic direction, are already obvious. This can be seen in the example of the work of two of the greatest artists of the second half of this century - Paolo Veronese and Jacopo Tintoretto.

Paolo Cagliari, nicknamed Veronese (he hails from Verona, 1528-1588), was destined to become the last singer of the festive, jubilant Venice of the 16th century.

: "Feast in the House of Levi" "Marriage at Cana of Galilee" for the refectory of the monastery of San George Maggiore

Jacopo Robusti, known in art as Tintoretto (1518-1594) ("tintoretto" - dyer: the artist's father was a silk dyer). The Miracle of St. Mark (1548)

("The Salvation of Arsinoe", 1555), "Introduction to the Temple" (1555),

Andrea Palladio (1508-1580, Villa Cornaro in Piombino, Villa Rotonda in Vicenza, completed after his death by his students, many buildings in Vicenza). The result of his study of antiquity was the book "Roman Antiquities" (1554), "Four Books on Architecture" (1570-1581), but antiquity was for him a "living organism", according to the just observation of the researcher.

The Dutch Renaissance in painting begins with the "Ghent Altar" by the brothers Hubert (died in 1426) and Jan (c. 1390-1441) van Eyck, completed by Jan van Eyck in 1432. Van Eyck improved the oil technique: oil made it possible to convey brilliance, depth, richness of the objective world that attracts the attention of Dutch artists, its colorful sonority.

Of Jan van Eyck's many Madonnas, the most famous is the Madonna of Chancellor Rollin (circa 1435)

("The Man with the Carnation"; "The Man in the Turban", 1433; portrait of the artist's wife Marguerite van Eyck, 1439

Much in solving such problems Dutch art owes Rogier van der Weyden (1400? -1464) "Descent from the Cross" - a typical work of Weyden.

In the second half of the 15th century. accounts for the work of the master of exceptional talent Hugo van der Goes (circa 1435-1482) "Death of Mary").

Hieronymus Bosch (1450-1516), the creator of dark mystical visions, in which he turns to medieval allegorism, "The Garden of Pleasure"

The pinnacle of the Dutch Renaissance was undoubtedly the work of Pieter Brueghel the Elder, nicknamed the Peasant (1525 / 30-1569) ("Kitchen of the Skinny", "Kitchen of the Fat"). title - "Hunters in the Snow", 1565), "Battle of Carnival and Lent" (1559).

Albrecht Durer (1471-1528).

"Feast of the Rosary" (another name - "Madonna of the Rosary", 1506), "The Horseman, Death and the Devil", 1513; "St. Jerome "and" Melancholy ",

Hans Holbein the Younger (1497-1543), "The Triumph of Death" ("Dance of Death") portrait of Jane Seymour, 1536

Albrecht Altdorfer (1480-1538)

Renaissance Lucas Cranach (1472-1553),

Jean Fouquet (circa 1420-1481), Portrait of Charles VII

Jean Clouet (circa 1485 / 88-1541), son of François Clouet (circa 1516-1572), is the most important painter of France in the 16th century. portrait of Elizabeth of Austria, circa 1571, (portrait of Henry II, Mary Stuart, etc.)