The early works of Dostoevsky: characteristics, works. Features of the style of fiction by F.M.
1. The drama of prose. Ultimate concentration on the most complex layers of the inner world of a person, the image of tense states of mind. The heroes are immersed in themselves, in their inner world, striving to resolve difficult life issues.
An image of a person's inner life at moments of maximum psychological stress, intensity, when pain and suffering are practically unbearable. Obsessed with this idea, the hero forgets about food, clothes, completely neglects everyday life.
2. Emotional sensitivity, the split of the hero's consciousness, always faces a choice. Unlike L.H. Tolstoy F.M. Dostoevsky reproduces not the "dialectic of the soul," but constant psychological fluctuations. The hero feels a moral belonging to all people, the need to find and destroy the root of evil. The hero fluctuates from one extreme to the other, experiences a strange interweaving and confusion of feelings. By means of external and internal monologue, intense dialogue, with the help of capacious details, the author reveals the fluctuations of his heroes, the incessant struggle of contradictions in their souls.
3. Polyphonism (polyphony). Dostoevsky's heroes are people obsessed with an idea. Philosophical thinking of the hero. Each hero is the bearer of a certain idea. The development of ideas in the novel and the dialogue of consciousnesses. Dostoevsky builds the entire action of the novel not so much on real events and their descriptions as on the monologues and dialogues of the heroes (his own voice, the voice of the author, is also interwoven here). Mixing and mutual transitions of various forms of speech - internal, direct, improperly direct.
Duality principle... The double is intended to emphasize the low sides of his soul hidden from the hero,
4. Concentration of action in time, adventurism and rapid development of the plot, replete with tense dialogues, unexpected confessions and public scandals The spiritual world of Dostoevsky's heroes in many ways resembles chaos, is fragmented, illogical: the hero often acts “in spite of” and to spite himself, “on purpose”, although he foresees the disastrous consequences of his “deeds”.
Ways of revealing the psychology of heroes in the novel by F.M. Dostoevsky's "Crime and Punishment"
Portrait. Dostoevsky's portraits are schematic and symbolic, they instantly capture the main details. In the portrait of Raskolnikov: handsome "with beautiful dark eyes." Bright, details: clothes - rags, "too noticeable hat" (crown of thorns) - create almost the image of Christ ascending to Calvary. Svidrigailov is handsome, but his face is a mask, his lips are too scarlet for this age, his eyes are too bright. Such beauty is mesmerizing, Svidrigailov is the devil.
Sonya is small, thin, wearing a hat with a feather. This is an image of an angel with blue eyes and feathers, that is, wings behind her back. She looks like a child. In the soul of people like Sonya, there is no evil and sin, they carry good in themselves and cannot lie. conciseness of descriptions.
Dostoevsky is interested not so much in how a person looks, but in what kind of soul he has inside. So it turns out that from the whole description of Sonya, only one bright feather on the hat is remembered, which does not go to her at all, and Katerina Ivanovna has a bright scarf or shawl that she wears. Striving for a deep psychological disclosure of the characters' characters, Dostoevsky twice resorts to the portrait of his main characters. On the first pages of the novel, he kind of glimpses Raskolnikov: "By the way, he was remarkably good-looking, with beautiful dark eyes, dark Russian, above average growth, thin and slender." And now after the murder as he appears before us: “... Raskolnikov ... was very pale, absent-minded and gloomy. Outside, he looked like a wounded person or enduring some severe physical pain: his eyebrows were pulled together, his lips were compressed, his eyes were inflamed. He spoke little and reluctantly, as if through force or performing duties, and some anxiety occasionally appeared in his movements. "
New literary techniques for extracting the unconscious into the light
Speech... Confessionality is a tense play on words. Internal Monologues and Dialogues: The characters' internal monologues are transformed into dialogues. The speech of Dostoevsky's heroes acquires a new meaning; they do not speak, but “spit it out,” or an intense play with words takes place between the heroes, which, acquiring a double meaning, evokes a number of associations.
All heroes express the most important things, express themselves at the limit, shout in frenzy or whisper their last confessions in mortal delirium. In the speech of the heroes, always agitated, it casually slips what they most would like to hide, to hide from others.
(Raskolnikov, from the conversation between Lisaveta and the bourgeoisie, singles out only the words “seven,” “at the seventh hour,” “decide, Lisaveta Ivanovna,” “decide.” In the end, these words in his inflamed mind turn into the words “death”, “resolve” Investigator Porfiry Petrovich, a subtle psychologist, uses these associative connections deliberately. He puts pressure on Raskolnikov's consciousness, repeating the words: "government apartment", that is, prison, "resolve", "butt", forcing Raskolnikov to worry everything more and finally bringing it to the ultimate goal - recognition.
Psychological implications. The words butt, blood, crown, death pass as a leitmotif throughout the novel, through all the conversations between Raskolnikov and Zametov, Razumikhin and Porfiry Petrovich, creating a psychological subtext. Psycho-logical subtext is nothing more than a dispersed repetition, all links of which enter into relationships with each other, from which their new, deeper meaning is born.
Actions: dreams, delirium, hysteria, a state of passion. The heroes are in a state of deepest moral shock, anguish, therefore, Dostoevsky's works are especially characterized by dreams, delirium, hysterics and the so-called state of passion, close to hysterics.
Direct author's assessment. The author very carefully selects epithets that define the character and depth of the hero's feelings. For example, such epithets as "bilious", "sarcastic" fully let us feel the mood of Raskolnikov. Many are used as synonymous words that thicken the atmosphere of mental suffering: "an extraordinary, feverish and some kind of confused vanity seized him ..."; "I am now free from these spells, from witchcraft, charm, from obsession"; “A painful, dark thought”, as well as antonyms and oppositions, very vividly describing the state of the hero: “in such heat he felt cold”. Dostoevsky understands that it is impossible to fully investigate, to study the human soul. He constantly emphasizes the "mysteriousness" of human nature, using words that express doubt: "he seemed to be delusional," "perhaps," "probably."
Mutual characteristics. Duality system. All heroes are doubles and antipodes.
Such a system of characters allows you to explain the main characters through other characters, and none of them are superfluous, and they are all different facets of the soul of the protagonist - Raskolnikov
The composition of the work. Rapprochement in the similarity and contrast of individual episodes, scenes, duplication of plot situations (at the plot level or with the involvement of extra-story plot elements, for example, biblical legends, parables and other inserted episodes).
Landscape. Fusion of the landscape of the world and the landscape of the soul. Dostoevsky's landscape - Petersburg. Many of the wanderings of the protagonist take place at sunset (the motive of the setting sun). This is a strange, ghostly time, the edge of day and night, the most painful time of the day in St. Petersburg. The summer heat is described inappropriate to the geographical location of St. Petersburg, which intensifies the stench of drinking houses; summer does not turn the capital into a "city of the Sun", but only intensifies its oppressive effect on the soul. The description of the heat, unbearable stuffiness takes on a symbolic meaning. Man suffocates in this city.
The cityscape is painted with dirty, dull, gray colors. The bright red sun against the backdrop of a stuffy dusty city enhances the depressing impression.
Color spectrum... Yellow tones predominate in the novel, going beyond the description of the city: bright yellow houses; the painful color of the yellow sun; wallpaper in the rooms of Raskolnikov, the pawnbroker, Sonya; Alena Ivanovna's yellowed katsaveika; "Pale yellow face" Raskolnikov, Katerina-Ivanovna - "pale yellow, withered face", puffy yellow face of Marmeladov, "dark yellow faces" Luzhin, Porfiry Petrovich. Often this color frames poverty, illness, death, madness.
Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical
University named after V.P. Astafieva
History department
Department of Religious Studies
Course work
« Philosophical and religious views of F.M. Dostoevsky »
Performed:
3rd year student 35 gr.
K.V. Morozova
Supervisor:
Ginder V.E.
Krasnoyarsk 2011
Introduction ………………………………………………………………………… ..3
Chapter 1: biography of F.M. F.M. Dostoevsky and the peculiarities of his work ... 5
Chapter 2 Philosophical and religious views of F.M. F.M. Dostoevsky ... ... ... 14
2.1. The existence of God and godlessness ………………………………………………… ..14
2.2. Religious Revelation ……………………………………………… ... 18
2.3. Attitude towards the church ………………………… .. …………………………… 21
Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………… .23
Bibliography ………………………………………………………………… .24
Introduction
Relevance. The works of F.M. Dostoevsky and today remain relevant, because the writer thought and worked in the light of thousands of years of history. He was able to perceive every fact, every phenomenon of life and thought as a new link in the millennial chain of being and consciousness. F.M. Dostoevsky is not just a writer of his time, he is a religious thinker, whose philosophical ideas amaze readers even today.
FM Dostoevsky never portrayed life in its calm course. He is characterized by an increased interest in complex, tangled situations in society, and especially in turning points in the fate of an individual, which is by far the most valuable in a writer.
Object of study: F.M. Dostoevsky.
Item: directly philosophical and religious views of F.M. Dostoevsky.
Target: to reveal the philosophical and religious views of F.M. Dostoevsky.
Tasks:
1. To study the biography of FM Dostoevsky and the peculiarities of his work.
2. Identify and analyze his philosophical and religious views.
To achieve the above tasks, the following were used methods:
analysis of primary sources and additional literature that help to reveal the tasks;
synthesis, which allows you to combine the information obtained as a result of the analysis;
induction - the formulation of a logical inference by summarizing data.
The degree of knowledge. F.M. Dostoevsky has been studied since the release of his first work. Interest in his work is shown by a huge number of researchers from various fields of activity. These are not only philologists (Berkovsky A.N., Karjakin Yu.F., Tarasov B.N.), but also religious thinkers, philosophers (Shestov L, Soloviev V), psychologists (Veresaev V., Bakhtin M. M), sociologists ( Kashina N.V., Berdyaev N.A.).
Chapter 1. Biography of F.M. Dostoevsky and the peculiarities of his work.
FM Dostoevsky was born on October 30 (November 11, new style) in Moscow into the family of the head physician of the Mariinsky Hospital for the Poor. Father, Mikhail Andreevich, nobleman; mother, Maria Fedorovna, from the old Moscow merchant family. Received an excellent education at the private boarding school L. Chermak, one of the best in Moscow. The family loved to read, subscribed to the Library for Reading magazine, which made it possible to get acquainted with the latest foreign literature. Among Russian authors they loved N. Karamzin, V. Zhukovsky, A. Pushkin. Mother, a religious nature, from a young age introduced the children to the Gospel, took them on pilgrimage to the Trinity-Sergius Lavra.
Having grievously survived the death of his mother (1837), F.M.Dostoevsky, by his father's decision, entered the St. Petersburg Military Engineering School, one of the best educational institutions of that time. A new life was given to him with great exertion of strength, nerves, ambition. But there was another life - inner, intimate, unknown to those around.
In 1839, his father unexpectedly dies. This news shocked F.M. Dostoevsky and provoked a severe nervous seizure - a harbinger of future epilepsy, to which he had a hereditary predisposition.
He graduated from college in 1843 and was enrolled in the drafting service of the engineering department. A year later, he retired, convinced that his vocation was literature.
The first novel by F.M. Dostoevsky's "Poor People" was written in 1845, published by N. Nekrasov in the "Petersburg collection". Later, White Nights (1848) and Netochka Nezvanova (1849) were published, in which the features of F.M. Dostoevsky: in-depth psychologism, exclusivity of characters and situations.
Successfully begun literary activity is tragically cut short. FM Dostoevsky was one of the members of the Petrashevsky circle, which united adherents of French utopian socialism (Fourier, Saint-Simon). In 1849, for participation in this circle, the writer was arrested and sentenced to death, which was then replaced by four years of hard labor and settlement in Siberia.
After the death of Nicholas I and the beginning of the liberal reign of Alexander II, the fate of F.M. Dostoevsky, like many political criminals, was toned down. Noble rights were returned to him, and in 1859 he retired with the rank of second lieutenant.
In 1859 FM Dostoevsky received permission to live in Tver, then in St. Petersburg. At this time, he published the stories "Uncle's Dream", "The Village of Stepanchikovo and Its Inhabitants" (1859), the novel "The Humiliated and Insulted" (1861). Almost ten years of physical and mental suffering exacerbated F.M. Dostoevsky to human suffering, intensifying the intense search for social justice. These years became for him years of a mental breakdown, the collapse of socialist illusions, the growth of contradictions in his worldview. He actively participates in the public life of Russia, opposes the revolutionary democratic program of Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov, rejecting the theory of "art for art", asserting the social value of art. After the hard labor, "Notes from the House of the Dead" were written. The writer spends the summer months of 1862 and 1863 abroad, visiting Germany, England, France, Italy and other countries. He believed that the historical path that Europe followed after the French Revolution of 1789 would be disastrous for Russia, as well as the introduction of new bourgeois relations, the negative features of which shocked him during his travels to Western Europe. A special, original path of Russia to the "earthly paradise" - this is the social and political program of F.M. Dostoevsky in the early 1860s.
In 1864, "Notes from the Underground" was written, an important work for understanding the changed worldview of the writer. In 1865, while abroad, in the resort of Wiesbaden, to improve his health, he began work on the novel Crime and Punishment (1866), which reflected the entire difficult path of his inner searches.
In 1867, FM Dostoevsky married Anna Grigorievna Snitkina, his stenographer, who became for him a close and devoted friend. Soon they go abroad: they live in Germany, Switzerland, Italy (1867-1871). During these years, the writer worked on the novels "The Idiot" (1868) and "Demons" (1870-1871), which he finished in Russia. In May 1872, the Dostoevskys left Petersburg for the summer for Staraya Rusa, where they subsequently bought a modest dacha and lived here with their two children even in winter. In Staraya Rousse, almost entirely the novels The Teenager (1874-1875) and The Brothers Karamazov (1878-1879) were written.
In 1873, the writer became the executive editor of the "Citizen" magazine, on the pages of which he began to publish "The Diary of a Writer", became a life teacher for thousands of Russian people.
At the end of May 1880 F.M.Dostoevsky went to Moscow to unveil a monument to A. Pushkin (June 6, the birthday of the great poet), where all of Moscow gathered. There were Turgenev, Maikov, Grigorovich and other Russian writers. F.M. Dostoevsky was called by I. Aksakov "a brilliant, historical event". Unfortunately, soon the writer's health deteriorated, and on January 28 (February 9, n. S), 1881, F. M. Dostoevsky died in St. Petersburg.
Contemporaries of F.M. Dostoevsky left many memories of his character, habits, and appearance from his youth to the last years of his life. Taken together, these memories are sometimes striking in their contradictions. So, AE Riesenkampf recalled that Fyodor Mikhailovich "... in his youth was quite round, plump, light blond, with a rounded face and a slightly upturned nose." But A.Ya. Panaeva, who met F.M. Dostoevsky in those same years, wrote that he "was thin, small, blond." And Dr. SD Yanovsky remembered him as follows: "he was below average height, had wide bones and was especially wide in the shoulders and chest ..." 1 . It is difficult to explain such a discrepancy in the perception of the same person by different people. Perhaps the general impression of the physical appearance of F.M. Dostoevsky was influenced by his "non-secularity", a certain nervousness, shyness, especially in his younger years.
From many recollections, one can see that the first impression when meeting Dostoevsky was sometimes almost disappointing: his appearance was inconspicuous, not aristocratic, there was something painful in his face - this feature was noted by almost all memoirists.
FM Dostoevsky made such a difficult and not very encouraging impression on Anna Grigorievna Dostoevskaya (Snitkina) when she first came to him on October 4, 1866 for stenographic work. To a twenty-year-old girl, FM Dostoevsky seemed like an old, sick man. He immediately confirmed the latter impression, reporting that he suffered from epilepsy and that he had recently suffered a seizure. In addition, he was absent-minded, several times asked his future assistant what her name was. "I left FM Dostoevsky in a very sad mood. I did not like him and left a heavy impression," 2 - Anna Grigorievna recalled many years later about her first meeting with her husband.
It should be considered established that the work of F.M. Dostoevsky falls into two periods - before “Notes from the Underground” and after “Notes from the Underground”. Between these two periods, a spiritual revolution took place with Dostoevsky, after which something new about man was revealed to him. After that, only the real FM Dostoevsky begins, the author of "Crime and Punishment", "The Idiot", "Demons", "Teenager", "The Brothers Karamazov". In the first period, when FM Dostoevsky wrote “Poor People”, “Notes from the House of the Dead,” “Humiliated and Insulted,” he was still a humanist - a wonderful-hearted, naive, humanist not free from sentimentality. He was still under the influence of Belinsky's ideas, and the influence of Georges Sand, V. Hugo, Dickens was felt in his work. And then the features of F.M. Dostoevsky, but he has not yet become completely himself. During this period he was still “Schiller”. By this name he later liked to call beautiful souls, admirers of everything “high and beautiful”. Then already with the pathos of F.M. Dostoevsky had compassion for man, for all the humiliated and insulted. Beginning with Notes from the Underground, one feels a person who has cognized good and evil, who has gone through a split. He becomes the enemy of the old humanism, the denouncer of humanistic utopias and illusions. It combines the polarities of passionate philanthropy and misanthropy, fiery compassion for man and cruelty. He inherited the humanism of Russian literature, Russian compassion for everyone left out, offended and fallen, the Russian sense of the value of the human soul. But he overcame the naive, elementary foundations of the old humanism, and a completely new, tragic humanism was revealed to him. In this respect, F.M.Dostoevsky can only be compared with F.V. Nietzsche, in which the old European humanism ended and the tragic problem of man was posed in a new way. It has been pointed out many times that F.M.Dostoevsky foresaw the ideas of F.V. Nietzsche. Both of them are heralds of a new revelation about man, both are above all great anthropologists, in both of them anthropology is apocalyptic, coming to the ends, ends and ends.
To determine the essence and characteristics of F.M. Dostoevsky, let us cite the opinion of M.M. Bakhtin: “When reviewing the vast literature about Dostoevsky, one gets the impression that this is not about one author-artist who wrote novels and stories, but about a number of philosophical speeches by several authors-thinkers - Raskolnikov, Myshkin, Stavrogin, Ivan Karamazov, the Grand Inquisitor and others. For literary-critical thought, the work of F.М. Dostoevsky broke up into a series of independent and contradictory philosophers, represented by his heroes. Among them, the philosophical views of the author himself are far from in the first place. The voice of F.M. Dostoevsky for some merges with the voices of one or another of his heroes, for others it is a kind of synthesis of all these ideological voices, for others, finally, he is simply drowned out by them. They argue with the heroes, learn from the heroes, try to develop their views to a complete system. The hero is ideologically authoritative and independent, he is perceived as the author of his own full-fledged ideologeme, and not as an object of the final artistic vision of F.M. Dostoevsky "3.
The main characters F.M. Dostoevsky, indeed, in the artist's very creative concept is not only the objects of the author's word, but also the subjects of his own directly meaningful word. The word of the hero, therefore, is not at all exhausted here by the usual characteristic and plot-pragmatic functions, but it also does not serve as an expression of the author's own ideological position (like Byron, for example). The consciousness of the hero is given as another, someone else's consciousness, but at the same time it is not objectified, does not close, does not become a simple object of the author's consciousness.
FM Dostoevsky created an essentially new novel genre. In his works, a hero appears, whose voice is constructed in the same way as the voice of the author himself is constructed in a novel of the usual type, and not the voice of his hero. The hero's word about himself and about the world is as full-bodied as the usual author's word; it is not subordinated to the object image of the hero, as one of his characteristics. He possesses exclusive independence in the structure of the work, it sounds as if next to the author's word and in a special way is combined with it and with the full-fledged voices of other heroes.
The originality of F.M. Dostoevsky not in the fact that he monologically proclaimed the value of the personality (others did it before him), but in the fact that he was able to see her objectively and artistically and show her as a different, alien personality, without making it lyrical, without merging his vote. It is not the first time that a high assessment of personality has appeared in the worldview of F.M. Dostoevsky, but for the first time the artistic image of a foreign person was fully realized in his novels.
F.M. Dostoevsky had only one all-consuming interest, only one theme, to which he devoted all his creative powers. The theme is this man and his destiny.
In the construction of F.M. Dostoevsky is very centralized. Everything and everything is directed towards one central person, or this central person is directed towards everyone and everything. Man is a mystery, and everyone is solving his mystery. Everything is attracted by this mysterious mystery. F.M. Dostoevsky has nothing but man: there is no nature, there is no world of things, there is no in man himself that connects him with the natural world, with the world of things, with everyday life, with the objective structure of life. There is only the human spirit, and only it is interesting, it is investigated. N. Strakhov, who was still close to him, remarked: “All his attention was directed to people, and he grasped only their nature and character. He was interested in people, exclusively people, with their mental disposition, with their way of life, their feelings and thoughts. " On a trip abroad “F.M. Dostoevsky was not particularly interested in nature, historical monuments, or works of art ”4. This is confirmed by all the works of F.M. Dostoevsky. FM Dostoevsky, first of all, is a great anthropologist, a researcher of human nature, its depths and its secrets. All his work is anthropological experiments and experiments.
F.M. Dostoevsky is considered a criminologist by topic and interest. He did the most to solve the psychology of crime. But this is only the method by which he conducts his research on the irrationality of human nature and its incommensurability with any system of life, with any rational statehood, or with any tasks of history and progress. FM Dostoevsky is a fiery religious nature and the most Christian of the writers. But he is a Christian first of all and most of all in his artistic revelations about man, and not in sermons and not in doctrines.
Mir F.M. Dostoevsky - artistically organized coexistence and interaction of spiritual diversity, and not stages of the formation of a single spirit. Therefore, the worlds of the heroes, the plans of the novel, despite their different hierarchical accentuation, in the very construction of the novel lie side by side in the plane of coexistence (like the worlds of Dante Alighieri) and interaction (which is not in the formal polyphony of Dante Alighieri), and not one after another as stages becoming. But this does not mean, of course, that in the world of F.M. Dostoevsky is dominated by a bad logical hopelessness, a lack of thought and a bad subjective contradiction. No, the world of F.M. Dostoevsky, in his own way, is also finished and rounded. But it is in vain to look for a systemic-monological, albeit dialectical, philosophical completeness in him, and not because the author did not succeed in it, but because it was not part of his intentions.
Thus, having examined the biography of F.M. Dostoevsky and the peculiarities of his work, we came to the following conclusions:
F.M. Dostoevsky lived a life full of moral and psychological difficulties, creative ups and downs, endured many personal and family tragedies, and all this against the background of a difficult political and social situation in Russia at that time.
According to the memoirs of his contemporaries F.M. Dostoevsky gave the impression of a shy person, especially in his younger years, his appearance was inconspicuous, not aristocratic, there was something painful in his face, he was sometimes absent-minded, often in a depressed state.
The peculiarities of F.M. Dostoevsky are: realism, profound psychologism, centralization - all attention is directed to the individual, the absence of logical completeness.
Hero-ideologist
the end of the form the beginning of the form Most of Dostoevsky's characters are ordinary socio-psychological types. But only heroes-ideologists participate in an equal dialogue with the author. Many people argue on philosophical topics (for example, a student and an officer in the billiard room), but these arguments enter as material into the hero's self-consciousness, for Dostoevsky's equality of the hero and the author is selective. He chooses "interlocutors" not by nobility and not by dress: he needs ethically meaningful people (even sinners).
Such heroes are not types. They know everything that the literature of the era can tell about them, they know their own determination and act in spite of it. Dostoevsky's “righteous men” are also not types, but images with a strong dose of idealization and declarativeness: they stand “above” dialogue.
So, in Dostoevsky's work, the equality of the hero and the author is limited by a relatively narrow circle of hero-ideologists. This clarification helps our further consideration.
First of all, let's clarify: Dostoevsky, of course, did not write his novels in co-authorship with Raskolnikov, Stavrogin and Ivan Karamazov, they are all fictionalized by the empirical author, but fictionalized as “co-authors” of the narrator. The latter in Dostoevsky is far from being identical with the "omniscient author" of the previous literature. Even narrating without any intermediaries and chroniclers, Dostoevsky gives the heroes freedom of aesthetic initiative.
The hero-ideologist composes his life as a work of art. This is the life principle of romantics, and the main characters of Dostoevsky are romantic thinkers. This was the principle of the young Dostoevsky: “To live is to make a work of art out of oneself” 4. To portray such a life-writing means to give free rein to the "writer" to build his own world within the author's world or parallel to it. Hence the phenomenon of co-authorship.
Genre originality
Dostoevsky's work made a huge contribution to the development of literature, both Russian and foreign.
Dostoevsky was the founder of a new creative method in depicting a person. D. first showed that human consciousness is ambivalent (it is based on opposite principles, principles of good and evil), contradictory.
Dialectic stands at the origins of a new philosophical consciousness, the consciousness of religious existentialism (this theory rejects the theory of rational cognition of the world and asserts an intuitive comprehension of the world). D. defended the position that a person sees his essence in borderline situations.
Glory to Dostoevsky was brought by his novels - his "Pentateuch":
"Crime and Punishment" (1866);
The Idiot (1868);
Demons (1871);
The Teenager (1875);
The Brothers Karamazov (1880-188).
Features of Dostoevsky's realism:
1. Dialogue of the story. There is always a dispute and defense of their position (Ivan and Alyosha Karamazov in The Brothers Karamazov, Shatov and Verkhovensky in Demons, Raskolnikov and Sonya Marmeladova in Crime and Punishment, Prince Lev Nikolaevich Myshkin and the rest of society in The Idiot)
2. Combining a philosophical basis with a detective story. Everywhere there is murder (old women-pawnbrokers in Crime and Punishment, Nastasya Filippovna in The Idiot, Shatov in Demons, Fyodor Pavlovich Karamazov in The Brothers Karamazov). For this, critics reproached the writer all the time.
3. Regarding the realism of Dostoevsky, it was said that he had “fantastic realism”. D. believes that in exceptional, unusual situations, the most typical is manifested. The writer noticed that all his stories were not invented, but taken from somewhere. All these incredible facts are facts from reality, from newspaper chronicles, from hard labor, where Dostoevsky spent a total of 9 years (1850-1859, from 1854-59 he served as a private in Semipalatinsk) and where he was exiled for participating in Petrashevsky's circle. (The plot of "The Brothers Karamazov" is based on real events related to the trial of the alleged "parricide" of the Omsk prison of Lieutenant Ilyinsky)
4. In the "Diary of a Writer" Dostoevsky himself defined his method as "realism in the highest degree." D. depicts all the depths of the human soul. The most interesting thing is to find a person in a person with complete realism. To show the true nature of man, one must depict him in borderline situations, at the edge of the abyss. Before us appears a shaken consciousness, lost souls (Shatov in "Demons", Raskolnikov in "Crime and Punishment"). In borderline situations, all the depths of the human "I" are revealed. A person is in a world hostile to him, but he cannot live without it.
5. Engelhardt suggested calling Dostoevsky's novel an ideological novel, since there is a conflict of ideas in his novels. D. himself called this conflict "pro et contra", meaning "for" or "against" faith. In the artistic space of D.'s novels, there is usually a conflict of two ideas: Raskolnikov - Sonya Marmeladova; Elder Zosima - Ivan Karamazov.
6. Vyacheslav Ivanov, defining the new genre originality of Dostoevsky's novel, called his works a novel - a tragedy, since his novels show the tragedy of personality, loneliness, alienation. The hero is always faced with the problem of choice, and he himself must decide which path he will take.
7. Mikhail Mikhailovich Bakhtin, defining the structural feature of Dostoevsky's novels, speaks of polyphony (polyphony). D.'s polyphonic novel now opposes the previously dominant monologue novel in Russian literature, where the author's voice prevailed.
27. The concept of European civilization in the story of L.N. Tolsky "Lucerne". Spirit. Russian way. intellectual in Tolstoy's hang "Cossacks".
In the literature devoted to Tolstoy, the opinion was expressed that there are many autobiographical features in the image of Dmitry Nekhlyudov. These autobiographical features can be seen with special reason in the stories "The Morning of the Landowner" and "Lucerne". Contemporaries felt the too “subjective”, lyrical tone of “Lucerne”, which amazed Turgenev and other writers with its preaching tone, Rousseau attacks against European civilization and the immediacy of the transition from a subjectively perceived impression to a categorical denial of the whole historically established system of social relations. Behind the figure of the nobly intolerant prince Nekhlyudov, one could see the image of the writer who created this hero - Count Tolstoy - an indomitable debater, an ardent champion of truth, sincerity, justice
V "Cossacks" Tolstoy- a definitively established master, equal to the leading realists of that period in the development of Russian literature.
As his hero, he chooses a person who belongs to the type of "superfluous person" that has long been formed in our literature. Tolstovsky Olenin is one of those who are said to have "not yet found himself." He tries to search for himself in being, the closest, according to his conclusion, to natural life, somewhere on the verge between civilization and natural element. In pursuit of his nature and the natural basis of being, Olenin dreams of simplifying himself, living the life of a simple Cossack, marrying the beautiful Cossack Maryana, who personifies natural harmony for him.
An example of man's closeness to nature is the old Cossack Uncle Eroshka for Olenin. Eroshka is not at all an example of virtue. Eroshka's morality is very different from Christian morality, it is precisely natural. So, he easily volunteers to deliver Olenin a "beauty" and rejects the objection of the young man, who has not lost the concept of religious prohibition, as contrary to the natural order of things. Eroshka "spies" the laws of natural life and transfers them to human life.
And this is what Olenin gravitates towards more and more, feeling at times that he is a part, an inseparable part natural life. Gravitation towards natural existence is a subconscious striving to relieve oneself of all responsibility and all guilt for one's sin - nothing else. The reason is simple, commonplace. And isn't that the foundation of all Rousseauism: to dispose of one's own sinfulness, to spew it out somewhere? Shifting the blame onto someone or something ...
It should not be overlooked that Tolstoy's story appeared in 1863: the controversy around "Fathers and Sons" has not yet fizzled out, and Chernyshevsky is throwing his novel "What is to be done?" Into the cauldron of public passions. plow tempting natures. Society is already excited by the changes that are being made. And at this very time Olenin, far from all the vain chaos, dreams of merging with the primordial element? The reproaches to Tolstoy were undeniable: for a deliberate departure from the most important issues of our time, for almost neglecting them.
Got away from the problems? No. It was the most pressing problems of human existence that the writer touched upon in his creation. After all, the truly important questions are not in the vanity with which the noisy progressists amused themselves. That has come and gone in due time. But the eternal question remained about the meaning of life and about happiness in this life. Tolstoy did not get away from the problems of being, he discovered and reflected the most acute of them. It is quite natural that they did not quite coincide with the public spite of the day.
28. The theme of the people, war, true and false patriotism In the "Sevastopol stories" by L.N. Tolsky.
War stories. The image of a common man at war. The theme of patriotism in the "Sevastopol Stories". Mastery of Tolstoy as a psychologist in "Sevastopol stories".
Tolstoy began to write military stories at the same time as his first story. They accompanied the trilogy further, until the publication in 1856 of the completed "Youth".
Exploring the path of moral formation of a person in the trilogy, the writer discovered how difficult it is for people, even with their highest and purest aspirations, to self-improvement, spiritual and spiritual growth. As one of the most serious obstacles in this sense, he saw the lack of the necessary endurance and stamina.
Tolstoy's own impressions of that time were mainly associated with the behavior of people in the conditions of hostilities. He began to develop these impressions of his in military stories, not trusting any ready-made concepts, establishing anew what stamina is, whether it is given to a person by belonging to a certain circle, education, etc., etc. This is how they appeared in Tolstoy one after another such war stories as "Raid", "Logging", "Demoted".
When the writer came to Sevastopol and took part in the events of the Crimean campaign, the significance of the military theme in his work expanded significantly. Already on November 2, 1854, on his way to Sevastopol, Tolstoy wrote in his diary: “The moral strength of the Russian people is great. Many political truths will come out and develop in the current difficult times for Russia. The feeling of ardent love for the fatherland, which rebelled and poured out of the misfortunes of Russia, will leave traces in it for a long time. Those people who are now sacrificing their lives will be citizens of Russia and will not forget their sacrifice. They will take part in public affairs with great dignity and pride, and the enthusiasm excited by the war will forever leave in them the character of self-sacrifice and nobility. " How quickly and decisively Tolstoy's "look at things" deepened at this time under the influence of what was happening, can be judged at least by the fact that less than a month after the above entry, on November 28, 1854, the writer noted in the same diary: " Russia must either fall or be completely transformed. Everything goes in reverse, the enemy does not interfere with strengthening his camp, whereas that would be extremely easy, but we ourselves, with lesser forces, expecting no help from anywhere, with generals like Gorchakov, who have lost both mind, feeling, and energy, without strengthening, we stand against the enemy and expect storms and bad weather, which will be sent by Nicholas the Wonderworker to drive out the enemy ... It is a sad situation - both the troops and the state. "
The beginnings of epic character sprouted in Tolstoy's work inseparably from the further deepening of psychological analysis. Here in "Sevastopol in May" we see how inexorably the element of war manifests itself, how, in front of it, any individual person seems to lose all meaning. But a short message about the death of one of the episodic characters of the story, killed on the spot by a splinter, is adjacent to the most detailed transmission of what he had time to think, feel, remember in just one last moment of his earthly life this quite ordinary Praskukhin, with how many other people he felt himself internally connected, and reveals how infinitely filled, how immeasurably rich is a separate human life in itself, no matter what it looks from the outside
The combination of the general picture of events and gazing at a particular private person brought Tolstoy in "Sevastopol Stories" an unprecedented stereoscopic image. This conquest continued in a new way in the story "The Morning of the Landowner" (1856), which replaced the writer's unfulfilled concept of "The Novel of the Russian Landowner".
29. The history of creation and genre originality of the epic novel "War and Peace". War and peace concept.
History of creation over the novel "War and Peace”(1864-1869) were a period of intense class struggle, unfolding around the peasant question. The reform of 1861 did not resolve the essence of the question of the peasant, of his relationship with the landowner. The numerous uprisings with which the peasantry responded to the reform clearly showed the discontent and indignation caused by the reform among the peasant masses. The problem of the "muzhik" was still in the center of public attention. In journalism and fiction, the problems of the peasantry and the further development of the country were posed and highlighted with particular acuteness. There is a special interest in works that raise acute political, philosophical and historical issues. In the light of the historical past, the most important issues of the era are considered. It is in this social and literary atmosphere that L. Tolstoy has the idea of a historical novel, but one that, using the material of history, would give an answer to the burning questions of our time. Tolstoy planned to confront two eras: the era of the first revolutionary movement in Russia - the era of the Decembrists, and the 60s - the era of revolutionary democrats.
War and Peace is not just a story about historical events. This is noticeable even if you look closely at the composition of the novel. Description of the life of ordinary families, such as Rostovs, Bolkonskys and others, alternates with descriptions of battles, military operations, stories about the personalities of Napoleon, Kutuzov. At the same time, we see pictures of a completely different kind. People get to know each other, part, declare their love, marry for love and for convenience - that is, they live an ordinary life. A whole string of meetings passes before the eyes of readers for many years. And history does not stand still. Emperors decide questions of war and peace, the war of 1812 begins. The peoples of Europe, forgetting about their home and family, are heading to Russia to conquer it. These troops are headed by Napoleon. He is confident and values himself highly. And L.N. Tolstoy, as if imperceptibly comparing him with peaceful people, shows that Napoleon is not at all a genius, that he is just an adventurer, like many others who do not bear a loud title and are not crowned with the crown of the emperor.
One of the features of War and Peace is the large number of philosophical digressions. More than once in them the author argues that it was not Napoleon at all that was the cause of the war. Tolstoy writes: "Just as this or that figure is drawn in a stencil, not because in which direction and how to smear on it with paints, but because the figure cut out in the stencil was smeared with paint in all directions." One person does not make history. But when nations gather, although they have different goals, but act in the same way, then events occur that remain in history. Napoleon did not understand this, considering himself the reason for the movement, the clash of peoples.
Count Rostopchin is somewhat similar to Napoleon, confident that he did everything to save Moscow, although, in fact, he did nothing.
There are people in War and Peace who really care about the question of Russia's life and death. One of them is M.I.Kutuzov. He understands the situation and neglects the opinion of others about himself. He perfectly understands Prince Andrei, the careerist Bennigsen, and, in fact, the whole of Russia. He understands people, their aspirations, desires, and hence the fatherland. He sees what is good for Russia and for the Russian people.
MI Kutuzov understands this, but Napoleon does not. Throughout the novel, the reader sees this difference and sympathizes with Kutuzov.
What does it mean to understand people? Prince Andrew also understands the souls of other people. But he believes that in order to change the world, everyone must improve themselves first of all. He did not accept war, since war is violence. It is through the image of his beloved hero that Lev Nikolaevich conveys his own thoughts. Prince Andrew is a military man, but he does not accept war. Why?
"There are two sides of life in every person: personal life, which is all the more free, the more abstract its interests, and spontaneous, swarm life, where a person inevitably fulfills the laws prescribed to him," the author writes.
But why should a person live a second life, where he is lost as a person and serves as an unconscious instrument of history? Why do you need all this?
And LN Tolstoy calls in his novel to end unnecessary, senseless wars and live in peace. "War and Peace" is not just a historical novel, it is a project to build a new spiritual world. As a result of wars, people leave their families, become a faceless mass, which is destroyed by exactly the same other mass. LN Tolstoy dreamed of ending wars on earth, about people living in harmony, surrendering to their sorrows and joys, meetings and partings, and being free spiritually. To convey his thoughts to readers, Lev Nikolaevich wrote a book where he not only consistently expounds his thoughts, his views, but also illustrates them using the example of the life of people during the Patriotic War. Those who read this book do not just perceive other people's judgments, but experience together with the heroes, imbued with their feelings and through them communicate with Leo Tolstoy. "War and Peace" is a kind of holy book, similar to the Bible. Its main idea, as Tolstoy wrote, is "the foundation of a new religion ... giving bliss on earth." But how to create this world full of grace? Prince Andrew, who carried the image of this new world, dies. Pierre decided to join a secret society, which, again, by violent measures, will try to change the lives of people. It won't be a perfect world anymore. So is it even possible?
Apparently, L. N. Tolstoy leaves this question for the readers to think about. After all, in order to change the world, you need to change your own soul. How Prince Andrew tried to do it. And each of us can change ourselves.
The epic basis of the work is the feeling of life as a whole and of being in the entire breadth of this concept. Questions of life and death, truth and lies, joy and suffering, personality and society, freedom and necessity, happiness and unhappiness, war and peace are the subject of the novel. Tolstoy showed many spheres of being in which a person's life takes place.
The image of Pierre is presented in the work in a process of constant development. Throughout the novel, one can observe the train of thoughts of this hero, as well as the slightest fluctuations of his soul. He is looking not just for a position in life, in particular, one that is convenient for himself, but for the absolute truth, the meaning of life in general. The search for this truth is the search for all fate. At the beginning of the epic, Pierre is a weak-willed young man who constantly needs someone's guidance and therefore falls under various influences: either Prince Andrei, then the company of Anatol Kuragin, then Prince Vasily. His outlook on life is not yet firmly established. In the epilogue, Tolstoy makes it clear that Pierre takes an active part in secret Decembrist societies. As a personality, Pierre has not yet formed, and therefore the mind in him is combined with “dreamy philosophizing”, and absent-mindedness, weakness of will, lack of initiative, unsuitability for practical activity, with exceptional kindness. In the drawing room of Anna Pavlovna, he meets Helen - a person who is completely opposite to him in spiritual content. Helen Kuragina is an integral part of the world, where the role of the individual is determined by his social position, material well-being, and not by the height of moral qualities. Pierre did not have time to get to know this society, where “there is nothing truthful, simple and natural. Everything is saturated through and through with lies, falsehood, heartlessness and hypocrisy ”. He did not have time to understand the essence of Helen. One of the important milestones in the life of the hero began with his marriage to this woman. “Indulging in debauchery and laziness,” Pierre is increasingly realizing that family life does not work out, that his wife is absolutely immoral. He is acutely aware of his own degradation, dissatisfaction grows in him, but not with others, but with himself. In his disorder, Pierre considers it possible to blame only himself.
After everything that happened to him, especially after the duel with Dolokhov, his whole life seems senseless to Pierre. He is plunged into a mental crisis, which manifests itself in the hero's dissatisfaction with himself, and in the desire to change his life, to build it on new, good principles.
The culmination of the novel was the depiction of the Battle of Borodino. And in the life of Bezukhov, it was also a decisive moment. Wanting to share the fate of the people, Russia, the hero, not being a military man, takes part in the battle. Through the eyes of this character, Tolstoy conveys his understanding of the most important event in the people's historical life. Pierre begins to understand that a person cannot own anything while he is afraid of death. The one who is not afraid of her owns everything. The hero realizes that there is nothing terrible in life, and sees that it is these people, ordinary soldiers, who live a true life. And at the same time, he feels that he cannot connect with them, live the way they live.
An important stage in the life of the hero is his meeting with Platon Karataev. This meeting marked Pierre's introduction to the people, to the people's truth. In captivity, he finds "that calmness and self-satisfaction, to which he vainly strove before." Here he learned "not with his mind, but with his whole being, his life, that man was created for happiness, that happiness is in himself, in the satisfaction of natural human needs." An introduction to the people's truth, the people's ability to live, helps Pierre's inner liberation. Pierre always looked for a solution to the question of the meaning of life: “He looked for this in philanthropy, in Freemasonry, in the absent-mindedness of secular life, in wine, in the heroic deed of self-sacrifice, in romantic love for Natasha. He searched for this by means of thought, and all these searches and attempts deceived him. " And now, finally, with the help of Platon Karataev, this issue is resolved.
Having learned the truth of Karataev, Pierre in the epilogue of the novel goes further than this truth - he goes not in the Karataev way, but in his own way. Pierre achieves final spiritual harmony in marriage with Natasha Rostova. After seven years of marriage, he feels like a completely happy person. By the end of the 1810s, resentment was growing in Pierre, a protest against the social order, which was expressed in the intention to create a legal or secret society. So, the hero's moral quest ends with the fact that he becomes a supporter of the emerging Decembrist movement in the country.
Prince Andrei Bolkonsky is one of the brightest and most tragic figures in the novel War and Peace. From his first appearance on the pages of the work and until his death from wounds in the Rostovs' house, the life of Bolkonsky was subordinated to its own internal logic. And in military service, and in political activity, and in the world, and, what is most strange, in love, Andrei remains lonely and incomprehensible. Closure and skepticism - these are the distinguishing features of Andrei even in his communication with loved ones: father, sister, Pierre, Natasha. But he is far from being a man-hater. He with all his soul wants to find an application for his mind and abilities, “he was looking for one thing with all the strength of his soul: to be quite good ...” But his life is not like looking for a new one, but like running away from the old. A keen mind pushes him to activity, but the inner feeling of the element of life stops him, indicating the futility of a person's efforts. Andrey's endeavors end in disappointment. His sincere desire to serve his homeland, his cause collides with general indifference. A man with a sober and skeptical mind, Prince Andrew could not find a place for himself in the midst of the deceitful greed and flattering careerism that reigned in secular and military life. But gradually he comes to the conclusion that all his efforts are nothing more than vanity. The life path of Prince Andrey is a story of disappointments, but at the same time it is a story of comprehending the meaning of life. Bolkonsky is gradually getting rid of illusions - the desire for secular glory, a military career, for socially useful activities. Any talk about love for "neighbors" the prince considers hypocrisy. First of all, you should love yourself and your relatives. And respecting himself and acting according to honor, a person will inevitably be useful to people, in any case, will not harm them. Andrey considers responsibility for other people an unreasonable burden, and making decisions for them is irresponsibility and narcissism. Periods of disappointment give way to Prince Andrei by periods of happiness and spiritual rebirth. Andrei Bolkonsky has gone from ambitious selfishness and pride to self-denial. His life is an evolution of the pride of the human mind, which resists the unconscious kindness and love that make up the meaning of human life. A lonely and proud hero, even if very intelligent and positive in all respects, according to L.N. Tolstoy, cannot be useful to this world.
30. The portrayal of historical figures and philosophy of history in the novel "War and Peace ".
Kutuzov and Napaleon in the novel by L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace"
Speaking of the Battle of Borodino, one cannot remain silent about two key figures of this decisive event in the history of the nineteenth century: Kutuzov and Napoleon.
Tolstoy himself not only does not find anything attractive in the personality of Napoleon, but, on the contrary, considers him a man whose "mind and conscience are darkened." Tolstoy regards all his actions as "too opposite to goodness and truth, too far from everything human." In many scenes of the novel, the French emperor appears not as a great statesman, but as a capricious and narcissistic poser. Receiving Balashev, Napoleon calculated everything in order to make an irresistible impression on him. He wanted to present himself as the embodiment of strength, greatness and nobility. To this end, he made an appointment for "the most favorable time of his - morning" and dressed up in "the most, in his opinion, his majestic costume." Not only the time was calculated, but also the place of the meeting and even the pose that Napoleon had to take in order to make a proper impression on the Russian ambassador. However, during the conversation, Balashev, "lowering his eyes more than once, involuntarily observed the quivering of the calf in Napoleon's left leg, which intensified the more he raised his voice." Napoleon, however, knew about this physical handicap and saw in it a “great sign”.
Tolstoy sees this as another confirmation of the incredible narcissism of the French emperor. Tolstoy's dislike for Napoleon is also evident in the description of other details, such as the manner of “looking past” the interlocutor. and this ancient capital perished ... ”But it did not take him long to enjoy his greatness. He found himself in a pitiful and ridiculous position, never waiting for the keys to the majestic city. And soon the cruel and treacherous conqueror suffered a complete defeat. Thus, history debunks the cult of the strong personality, the cult of the “superman”.
Tolstoy opposes Field Marshal Kutuzov to Napoleon (both as a military leader and as a person). Unlike the emperor of France
he never ascribed to himself the main role in the successes achieved by the Russian army. Tolstoy repeatedly says that Kutuzov led the battles in his own way. Unlike Napoleon, he relied not on his genius, but on the strength of the army. Kutuzov was convinced that the "spirit of the army" was of decisive importance in the war.
In a difficult situation for the Russian army, he managed to take on full responsibility. It is impossible to forget the scene of the military council in Fili, when Kutuzov made the decision to retreat. In those gloomy hours, one terrible question arose before him: "Did I really allow Napoleon to reach Moscow, and when did I do it?., When was this terrible thing decided?" At this tragic moment for Russia, when it was necessary to make one of the most important decisions in history, Kutuzov was completely alone. He had to make this decision himself, and he made it. For this, the commander needed to collect all his mental strength. He was able to resist despair, maintain confidence in victory and instill this confidence in everyone - from generals to soldiers.
Of all the historical figures shown in the novel, only Kutuzov Tolstoy calls a truly great man. In the novel "War and Peace" Kutuzov is presented as a folk hero, whose entire power consisted "in that popular feeling that he carried in himself in all its purity and strength."
It can be concluded that the main difference between these generals Tolstoy saw in the anti-popular activities of Napoleon and the popular principle underlying all of Kutuzov's actions.
Here it is necessary to say about Tolstoy's attitude to the role of personality in history. Even in his youth, the writer came to the idea that "every historical fact must be explained humanly." He was very fond of the idea of "personifying" history, that is, depicting it in living faces. But even then, Tolstoy was ironic about those writers who considered the creators of history to be a few outstanding persons. In War and Peace, he violently protests against this point of view. In the epilogue of the novel, Tolstoy says that it is impossible to describe the movement of mankind without the concept of a force that forces people to direct their activities towards one goal, and this force is the movement of “all, without one exception of all people”. According to Tolstoy, the content of the historical process is the movement of the masses, their actions, their mighty, unstoppable force, and the greatness of the individual lies in becoming a part of this force. Attempts to put oneself above the people, considering them a crowd, to control them, are ridiculous and absurd and lead to universal human tragedies.
31. "Anna Karenina" by L.N. Tolstoy. Tragedy, the meaning of the conflict.
The novel "Anna Karenina" was initially conceived as a large epic work on the theme of family life. This is evidenced by at least his beginning: "All happy families are alike, each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way"; arrangement of figures: Anna and Vronsky, Levin and Kitty, Steve and Dora Oblonsky, etc. But gradually, as the heroes entered the framework of the epoch being described, the novel began to be filled with broad social content. As a result, Tolstoy not only showed the crisis of the old family, which was based on false public morality, but also, opposing the natural relationship between spouses to artificial life in the family, tried to outline the ways out of this crisis. They, according to Tolstoy, are in the awakening of a sense of personality, in the intensive growth of self-awareness under the influence of social changes of the era.
Initially, the author wanted to portray a woman who has lost herself, but is not guilty. Gradually, the novel grew into a broad denunciatory canvas showing the life of post-reform Russia in all its diversity. The novel represents all strata of society, all classes and estates in the new socio-economic conditions, after the abolition of serfdom.
Speaking about Anna Karenina, Tolstoy showed that she was worried only about purely personal problems: love, family, marriage. Not finding a decent way out of this situation, Anna decides to leave this life. She throws herself under the train, as life in her current position has become unbearable.
Unwillingly, Tolstoy passed a harsh sentence to society with its deceitful sanctimonious morality, which drove Anna to suicide. In this society, there is no place for sincere feelings, but only for established rules that can be circumvented, but hiding, deceiving everyone and yourself. Society rejects a sincere, loving person like a foreign body. Tolstoy condemns such a society and the laws it has established.
32. Literary creativity of Tolstoy 80-90 years. ("The Death of Ivan Ilyich", "The Kreutzer Sonata", the plays "The Power of Darkness", "The Living Corpse")
The main themes and problems in Tolstoy's story "The Death of Ivan Ilyich"
The central place in the work of Tolstoy in the 80s belongs to the story
The Death of Ivan Ilyich (1884-1886). It embodied the most important features of the realism of the late Tolstoy. From this story, as a lofty and reliable model, one can judge what unites the later and early works of Tolstoy, what distinguishes them, what is the originality of the late Tolstoy in comparison with other realist writers of those years.
The test of a person by death is Tolstoy's favorite plot situation.
So it was in Childhood, where all the heroes are, as it were, tested by how they behave at the coffin; in Caucasian and Sevastopol stories - death in war; in the novels "War and Peace" and "Anna Karenina". In The Death of Ivan Ilyich, the theme continues, but it seems to be concentrated, condensed: the whole story is dedicated to one event - the painful death of Ivan Ilyich Golovin.
The latter circumstance gave rise to modern bourgeois literary scholars to consider the story as existential, that is, depicting the eternal tragedy and loneliness of a person. With this approach, the completely social and moral pathos of the story - the main one for Tolstoy - is reduced and, perhaps, removed. The horror of a life lived wrongly, the trial over it - this is the main meaning of "The Death of Ivan Ilyich."
Conciseness, conciseness, concentration on the main thing - a characteristic feature of the narrative style of the late Tolstoy. The Death of Ivan Ilyich retains the main method of Tolstoy's cognition and embodiment of the world - through psychological analysis. “Dialectics of the Soul” here (as in other stories of the 1980s) is also an instrument of artistic depiction. However, the inner world of Tolstoy's later heroes has changed a lot - it has become more tense, more dramatic. The forms of psychological analysis have changed accordingly.
The conflict between man and the environment has always interested Tolstoy. His best heroes usually confront the environment to which they belong by birth and upbringing, looking for ways to the people, to the world. The late Tolstoy is mainly interested in one moment: the degeneration of a person from the privileged classes, who has known social injustice and moral baseness, the falsity of the life around him. According to Tolstoy, a representative of the ruling classes (be it an official Ivan Ilyich, a merchant Brekhunov or a nobleman Nekhlyudov) can begin a "true life" if he realizes that his whole past life was "not right."
In the story, Tolstoy accused all of modern life that it is devoid of genuine human content and cannot withstand the test of death. In the face of death, everything in Ivan Ilyich, who has lived a very ordinary life, similar to many other lives, turns out to be "not right." Having had a service, family, friends, the faith he inherited by tradition, he dies completely alone, experiencing irresistible horror and not knowing how to help the remaining boy - his son. An indomitable attachment to life made the "writer reject her in the forms in which she appeared to him.
33. Critical pathos of the novel "Sunday" by Tolstoy
1889-1899. He wrote during the years of "turning point" in his views. The novel was written in a peculiar socialist manner. T. wanted to emphasize a turning point in views, in creativity. Reflected the artistic, aesthetic and philosophical views of the writer, based on the ideas of Christian universalism. He used a real event, gleaned by him from the judicial chronicle. The tragedy of Katyusha Maslova, preserving her dignity, The story of the moral revival of Nekhlyudov and his desire to atone for guilt was used to sharply denounce the tsarist despotism, the injustice of the socio-political system, corrupting judges, the corrupt administration, the servile Orthodox Church and the hypocritical official morality. Publication is the reason for his excommunication by the Holy Synod from the ROC (1901). The portraits are given very sparingly. Already with the idea a political theme arose: Maslova found herself friends among the exiled revolutionaries. The novel begins, unlike the previous ones, from the very essence of the matter, wakes up, receives a subpoena, recognizes the accused as Katyusha, the victim of his deception. The novel does not have the same picturesque colorfully sti, he is more severe in tone. Written according to the chronoglia of the consideration of the criminal case, with explanatory testimony, retrospective inquiries. Nekhlyudov repents not only of his misdeed, but also of the sins of his entire estate, all his ancestors. Fate struck Nekhludoff, erased his whole the old life, he should have dignity, cleansed of vice. Maslova rejected Nekhlyudov, a symbol of the ineradicable hatred of the common people for their masters.
The novel "Resurrection". The denunciation in the novel of the state and social foundations of tsarist Russia. Preaching moral self-improvement and non-resistance to evil by violence in the novel "V." Tolstoy's attitude to populist ideology and the revolutionary way of transforming social reality.
Tolstoy's last novel, Resurrection, published in 1899, was also destined to become one of the last novels of the 19th century. Indeed, in many respects it was the final one for its century.
At the beginning of Resurrection, the entire modern life arrangement immediately appears before us as false in its very foundation, entangling and confusing all people, which the writer declares directly and with full conviction. He does not recognize any conventions that people have accepted and accepted, and therefore, not agreeing to hide the essence of what is happening here behind the usual designation "city", he speaks of "one small place" where "several hundred thousand" gathered to "stone the ground", “To smoke with coal and oil”, “to drive out all animals and birds” ... Tolstoy accuses and blames. And he believes that no matter what, spring still cannot but be spring, the grass cannot but grow and turn green.
And then we learn that Katyusha Maslova is being taken to court. And they will judge her for a crime that she did not commit. Among her judges was the master Nekhlyudov, who was guilty of everything bitter and terrible that happened to her. The injustice has really reached the last limit.
People who judge Katyusha will understand her and believe her. They won't hurt her. But their relationship with her unfolds within the boundaries of the established morality and social system. And, without wishing it, they will doom her to hard labor and Siberia. C ^ and what kind of human relations in the existing order of life become impossible, even unreal *.
However, Tolstoy also insists that “the end is near this century and a new one is coming. " Back on November 30, 1889, he entered in his diary the following entry about the modern "form of life": "It will be destroyed not because revolutionaries, anarchists, workers, state socialists, Japanese or Chinese, but it will be destroyed because it has already been destroyed to the main half - it has been destroyed in the minds of people. "
It is enough for Nekhlyudov to meet Katyusha, deceived and abandoned by him, in court, so that he decisively turned his life around, renounced ownership of the land, took responsibility for the entire future of Maslova, and plunged headlong into the troubles of many, many prisoners. But for Katyusha, the appearance of Nekhlyudov in front of her returned her old pure love for him, made her think and remember not about herself, but about others: loving Nekhlyudov again, she does not allow herself to take advantage of his feeling of guilt in front of her and leaves with another person whom she needed. Both Katyusha and Nekhlyudov are resurrected in the novel, they are resurrected after everything that happened to each of them - for completely new relations with each other, indicating to them, according to Tolstoy, a new path from now on to any and all of people. At the end of the novel, we find Nekhlyudov reading the Gospel - the society that is to be formed, Tolstoy believed, should now unite everyone on the same moral basis on which everything for humanity once began.
In the book that Tolstoy wrote in the 90s, it was impossible to ignore those who, challenging the dominant system, turned to the revolutionary struggle. And the creator of "Resurrection" paid tribute to them.
Katyusha “very easily and without effort understood the motives that guided the“ revolutionaries, ”and, as a man of the people, she fully sympathized with them. She understood that these people went for the people against the masters and that these people were masters themselves and sacrificed their advantages, freedom and life for the people, made her especially appreciate these people and admire them. " It was one of the revolutionaries, Marya Pavlovna, who correctly and subtly explained to Nekhlyudov that for Katyusha to accept his offer and become his wife would be the most terrible of all - that would mean that she was now ready to bind him with herself, that her terrible fate did not reveal anything to her. , did not take her anywhere. So the revolutionaries were recognized by Tolstoy as people of heroism, people of the new century, although he could not approve of their method of action.
Tolstoy wrote "Resurrection" as a novel and as an appeal - an appeal to Russia and to all mankind. He himself once called it "a collective - many - letter". The border between art and direct social action in the most precise sense of the word was largely removed here.
In the aesthetic treatise What is Art? (1897 - 1898), in articles about the art of this decade, Tolstoy directly blamed art for its position in society, for the state of relations between people.
34. Genre nature, symbolism and originality of the conflict of Ostrovsky's play "The Thunderstorm". Assessment in Russian criticism.
For works of a realistic direction, it is characteristic to endow objects or phenomena with symbolic meaning. AS Griboyedov was the first to use this technique in the comedy "Woe from Wit", and this became another principle of realism.
A.N. Ostrovsky continues the tradition of Griboyedov and
divides the meaning of natural phenomena, the words of other characters, the landscape, which is important for the heroes. But Ostrovsky's plays have their own peculiarity: through images - symbols are given in the titles of the works, and therefore, only by understanding the role of the symbol in the title, we can understand the whole pathos of the work.
An analysis of this topic will help us to see the whole complex of symbols in the drama "The Thunderstorm" and determine their meaning and role in the play.
One of the important symbols is the Volga River and the rural view on the other side. The river as a border between the dependent, unbearable for many life on the bank, on which the patriarchal Kalinov stands, and a free, cheerful life there, on the other bank. Katerina, the main character of the play, associates the opposite bank of the Volga with childhood, with life before marriage: “What a frisky way I was! Katerina wants to be free from her weak-willed husband and despotic mother-in-law, to "fly away" from the family with domostroev principles. "I say: why do not people fly like birds? You know, sometimes it seems to me that I am a bird. When you stand on a torus, so you are drawn to fly," says Katerina Varvara. Katerina recalls birds as a symbol of freedom before throwing herself off the cliff into the Volga: "It's better in the grave ... There is a grave under the tree ... how good! ... The sun warms her up, wets her with rain ... in the spring on her the grass grows, so soft ... the birds will fly to the tree, they will sing, the children will be taken out ... "
The river also symbolizes an escape towards freedom, but it turns out that this is an escape towards death. And in the words of a lady, a half-crazy old woman, the Volga is a pool that draws in beauty: "Here is beauty leading somewhere. Here, here, into the very pool!"
For the first time, the lady appears before the first thunderstorm and frightens Katerina with her words about the disastrous beauty. These words and thunder in the mind of Katerina become prophetic. Katerina wants to run away to the house from the thunderstorm, as she sees God's punishment in her, but at the same time she is not afraid of death, but is afraid to appear before God after talking with Barbara about Boris, considering these thoughts to be sinful. Katerina is very religious, but this perception of a thunderstorm is more pagan than Christian.
Heroes perceive thunderstorms differently. For example, Dikoy believes that a thunderstorm is sent by God as a punishment, so that people remember about God, that is, he perceives a thunderstorm in a pagan way. Ku-ligin says that a thunderstorm is electricity, but this is a very simplified understanding of the symbol. But then, calling the storm a grace, Kuligin thereby reveals the highest pathos of Christianity.
Some motives in the monologues of the heroes also have a symbolic meaning. In act 3, Kuligin says that the home life of the rich people of the city is very different from the public one. Locks and closed gates, behind which "the household eat and tyrannize the family," are a symbol of secrecy and hypocrisy.
In this monologue, Kuligin denounces the "dark kingdom" of tyrants and tyrants, whose symbol is a lock on a closed gate so that no one can see and condemn them for bullying family members.
The motive of the trial sounds in the monologues of Kuligin and Feklushi. Fek-lusha speaks of the court, which is unjust, even though it is Orthodox. Kuligin, on the other hand, talks about the trial between merchants in Kalinovo, but this trial cannot be considered fair, since the main reason for the emergence of court cases is envy, and because of the bureaucracy in the judiciary, cases are dragged out, and every merchant is happy only that " yes, and he will be a penny. " The motive of judgment in the play symbolizes the injustice that reigns in the "dark kingdom".
The pictures on the walls of the gallery, where everyone runs in during a thunderstorm, also have a certain meaning. The paintings symbolize obedience in society, and "fiery hell" is hell, which Katerina is afraid of, who was looking for happiness and independence, and is not afraid of Kabanikh, since outside the house she is a respectable Christian and she is not afraid of God's judgment.
Tikhon's last words also carry another meaning: "It's good for you, Katya! But why did I stay in the world and suffer!"
The point is that Katerina, through death, gained freedom in a world unknown to us, and Tikhon will never have enough fortitude and strength of character to fight his mother or end his life, since he is weak-willed and weak-willed.
Summarizing what has been said, we can say that the role of symbolism is very important in the play.
Endowing phenomena, objects, landscape, words of heroes with another, deeper meaning, Ostrovsky wanted to show how serious the conflict existed at that time not only between, but also within each of them.
end of form beginning of form Conflict is a collision of two or more parties that do not coincide in views, attitudes.
There are several conflicts in Ostrovsky's play "The Thunderstorm", but how to decide which one is the main one? In the era of sociologism in literary criticism, it was believed that social conflict was the most important in the play. Of course, if you see in the image of Katerina a reflection of the spontaneous protest of the masses against the shackling conditions of the “dark kingdom” and perceive the death of Katerina as a result of her collision with her petty mother-in-law, the genre of the play should be defined as a social drama. A drama is a work in which the social and personal aspirations of people, and sometimes their very lives, are threatened with death by external forces beyond their control.
There is also a generational conflict between Katerina and Kabanikha in the play: the new always treads on the heels of the old, the old does not want to surrender to the new. But the play is much deeper than it might seem at first glance. After all, Katerina is first of all fighting with herself, and not with Kabanikha, the conflict develops not around her, but in herself. Therefore, the play "The Thunderstorm" can be defined as a tragedy. Tragedy is a work in which there is an insoluble conflict between the hero's personal aspirations and the supra-personal laws of life that occur in the mind of the protagonist. In general, the play is very similar to an ancient tragedy: the chorus is replaced by some extra-plot characters, the denouement ends with the death of the main character, as in the ancient tragedy (except for the immortal Prometheus).
The death of Katerina is the result of the collision of two historical eras. Some of the heroes of the play seem to differ in the time in which they live. For example: Kuligin is a man of the 18th century, he wants to invent a sundial, which was known in antiquity, or a perpetuum mobile, which is a distinctive feature of the Middle Ages, or a lightning rod. He himself reaches with his mind what has long been invented, and he only dreams about it. He quotes Lomonosov and Derzhavin - this is also a trait of a man of the 18th century. Boris is already an educator of the 19th century, an educated person. Katerina, on the other hand, is a heroine of pre-Petrine times. The story of her childhood is a story about the ideal version of patriarchal domestic relations. In this world of kings, only all-pervading mutual love, a person does not separate himself from society. Katerina was brought up in such a way that she could not abandon moral and ethical laws, any violation of them is inevitable death. Katerina turns out to be, as it were, older than everyone in the city in terms of her worldview, even older than Kabanikha, who remained as the last guardian of the house-building order in Kalinov. After all, Kabanikha only pretends that everything in her family is as it should be: her daughter-in-law and her son are afraid and respected, Katerina is afraid of her husband, and she doesn't care how everything really happens, for her only appearance is important. The main character finds herself in a world that she imagined in a completely different way, and the patriarchal order inside Katerina is destroyed right before her eyes. In many ways, Varvara decides the fate of Katerina, encouraging the latter to go on a date. Without Barbara, it is unlikely that she would have dared to do this. Varvara belongs to the youth of the city of Kalinov, which was formed at the turn of patriarchal relations. Katerina, finding herself in a new environment for her, cannot get along with society, it is alien to her. For her, an ideal husband is a support, support, a ruler. But Tikhon does not confirm Katerina's expectations, she is disappointed in him, and at this moment a new feeling is born - a feeling of personality, which takes the form of a feeling of love. This feeling for Katerina is a terrible sin. If she continued to live in the patriarchal world, then this feeling would not exist. Even if Tikhon showed his masculine will and simply took her with him, she would forget about Boris forever. The tragedy of Katerina is that she does not know how to hypocrite and pretend like Kabanikha. The main heroine of the play, moral, with high moral requirements, does not know how to adapt to life. She could not live on, having once violated the laws of "Domostroi". The feeling that originated in Katerina cannot be embodied in her to the end, and she, not resigning herself to what she has done, commits an even greater sin - suicide.
The play "The Thunderstorm" is the tragedy of the protagonist, in which the era of turning point in patriarchal relations played an important role.
"Thunderstorm" in Russian Criticism of the 60s.
The Thunderstorm, like Turgenev's Fathers and Sons, was the pretext for a stormy polemic between two revolutionary-democratic magazines: Sovremennik and Russkoye Slovo. The critics were most concerned with a question that was far from literary: it was about the revolutionary situation in Russia and its possible prospects. For Dobrolyubov, the "storm" was a confirmation of the revolutionary forces ripening in the depths of Russia, a justification of his hopes for the coming revolution "from below." The critic shrewdly noticed strong, rebellious motives in Katerina's character and connected them with the atmosphere of the crisis in which Russian life had entered: “In Katerina we see a protest against Kabanov's notions of morality, a protest carried to the end, proclaimed both under domestic torture and over the abyss, into which the poor woman rushed in. She does not want to put up, does not want to use the miserable vegetation that is given to her in exchange for her living soul ... What a joyful, fresh life a healthy person blows upon us, who finds the determination to end this rotten life no matter what!"
DI Pisarev assessed the "Thunderstorm" from a different standpoint in the article "Motives of the Russian Drama", published in the March issue of "Russian Word" for 1864. His article was polemically directed against Dobrolyubov. Pisarev called Katerina a "crazy dreamer" and "visionary": "Katerina's whole life, - in his opinion, - consists of constant internal contradictions; she rushes from one extreme to another every minute; today she regrets what she did yesterday, and between thus she herself does not know what she will do tomorrow; at every step she confuses her own life and the lives of other people; finally, confusing everything that was at her fingertips, she cuts the tight knots with the most stupid means, suicide. "
Pisarev is completely deaf to moral experiences, he considers them a consequence of the same folly of Ostrovsky's heroine: "Katerina begins to be tormented by remorse and reaches half-madness in this direction; to little tricks and precautions, one could see each other and enjoy life sometimes. But Katerina walks like a lost one, and Varvara is very thoroughly afraid that she will hit her husband's legs, and she will tell him everything in order. And so it comes out .. Thunder struck - Katerina lost the last remnant of her mind ... "
It is difficult to agree with the level of moral concepts from the "height" of which the "thinking realist" Pisarev judges Katerina. It is justified to some extent only by the fact that the entire article is a daring challenge to Dobrolyubov's understanding of the essence of "The Groza". Behind this challenge are problems that have no direct relation to "The Storm". This is again about the revolutionary potential of the people. Pisarev wrote his article in the era of the decline of the social movement and the disillusionment of revolutionary democracy with the results of the popular awakening. Since spontaneous peasant riots did not lead to revolution, Pisarev assesses Katerina's "spontaneous" protest as stupid nonsense. He proclaims Yevgeny Bazarov, who deifies natural science, as a "ray of light". Disappointed in the revolutionary possibilities of the peasantry, Pisarev believes in natural sciences as a revolutionary force capable of enlightening the people. Apollon Grigoriev felt "The Thunderstorm" most deeply. He saw in her "the poetry of folk life, boldly, widely and freely" captured by Ostrovsky. He noted "this hitherto unprecedented night of a date in a ravine, all breathing with the proximity of the Volga, all fragrant with the smell of grasses of its wide meadows, all sounding free songs," funny ", secret speeches, all full of charm of passion and cheerful and riotous and no less charm of deep passion and tragically fatal. It was created as if not an artist, but a whole people created here! "
Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky's literary debut took place in 1845. His novel in letters "Poor People" was immediately highly appreciated by V.G. Belinsky, D.V. Grigorovich, N.A. Nekrasov. The heroes of this work are the poor official Makar Devushkin and the defenseless orphan girl Varvara. During the 1840s, Dostoevsky's work was mainly devoted to the inconspicuous inhabitants of St. Petersburg, that is, the hero of his works was not a representative of some privileged class, but a person, which is the majority.
The main conflict in the early works of Dostoevsky is the clash of a person with a sensitive heart, a vulnerable soul, with a soulless reality, the cold and ruthless laws of St. Petersburg life. The inevitable consequence of this collision was the destruction of ideals, disappointment, suffering - a person either by the will of circumstances remained lonely, or he himself fenced off from people. Dostoevsky knows well the life of the Petersburg "corners" and describes in detail both the spiritual existence and the life of his heroes. Already in his early work, the main feature of Dostoevsky the prose writer was determined - attention to the person's personality. This is reflected in subtle psychologism, combined with the subject detail of the descriptions. These are the stories " Mr. Prokharchin"(1846)," Double"(1846)," Weak heart"(1848)," Netochka Nezvanova"(1849).
One of the central characters in Dostoevsky's early works, in addition to a petty official or a poor orphan girl, is the type of a dreamer hero - a young man who lives with the ideals of love, compassion, and kindness. Dostoevsky's dreamer lives in a vulgar environment, walks along dirty streets, among an insensitive crowd, but his soul is open to a dream, he does not seem to notice everything around him. This combination of dreams and feelings with the details of everyday life was called sentimental naturalism by critics. We see a vivid embodiment of this type of hero in the story, called Dostoevsky's sentimental novel, “ White Nights"(1848). Pay attention to the title, which includes the word "nights": Dostoevsky precisely chooses the time of day when the events take place. This is the only time for young dreamers when they can escape from the gloomy life, free themselves from daily worries, hear the call of love and penetrate into the mystery. Therefore, Dostoevsky builds his story in such a way that the events in it take place at night. The story describes four such nights, each of them forms the following chapter: "First night", "Second night", "Third night", "Fourth night" and, finally, a sad awakening - "Morning".
These nights are the time of meetings of two heroes: a young Dreamer, a commoner official, and a young girl - Nastenka. They meet during the White Nights in St. Petersburg, the radiance of which illuminates the pure and clear-hearted heroes in the glitter of the canals and the half-darkness of the city streets. The whole story is permeated with lyricism and poetry, creates a romantic mood. Therefore, Dostoevsky chooses as an epigraph a quote from a lyric poem by I.S. Turgenev's "Flower" (1843):
... Or was it created for
To be at least a moment
In the neighborhood of your heart? ..
The story "White Nights" continues the traditions of German romantic literature, in particular the works of E.T.A. Hoffmann, close in time to Russian literature. The dreamer reminds the heroes of the story "Nevsky Prospect" N.V. Gogol and the cycle of stories "Russian Nights" by V.F. Odoevsky. One of the prototypes of the image of the Dreamer was Dostoevsky's close friend, the lyric poet A.N. Pleshcheev, to whom the story is dedicated. Autobiographical motives are also present in it. Dostoevsky himself wrote, recalling his youth, which he spent in dreams: "There was not a moment in my life fuller, holier, cleaner." The story "White Nights" as one of the brightest and kindest works of Dostoevsky served as a source of inspiration for the artist M.V. Dobuzhinsky, who created classic illustrations for it, and for the film director I.A. Pyryev, who made a film based on its plot.
25. Specificity of Dostoevsky's Realism
Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (1821, Moscow-1881, St. Petersburg) is one of the most significant and famous Russian writers and thinkers in the world.
Realism in literature is a true portrayal of reality.
As for the realism of Dostoevsky, they said that he had “fantastic realism ». D. believes that in exceptional, unusual situations, the most typical is manifested. The writer noticed that all his stories were not invented, but taken from somewhere. All these incredible facts are facts from reality, from newspaper chronicles, from hard labor, where Dostoevsky spent a total of 9 years (1850-1859, from 1854-59 he served as a private in Semipalatinsk) and where he was exiled for participating in Petrashevsky's circle. (The plot of "The Brothers Karamazov" is based on real events related to the trial of the alleged "parricide" of the Omsk prison of Lieutenant Ilyinsky)
In the "Writer's Diary" Dostoevsky he himself defined his method as “ realism to the highest degree". D. depicts all the depths of the human soul. The most interesting thing is to find a person in a person with complete realism. To show the true nature of man, one must depict him in borderline situations, at the edge of the abyss. Before us appears a shaken consciousness, lost souls (Shatov in "Demons", Raskolnikov in "Crime and Punishment"). In borderline situations, all the depths of the human "I" are revealed. A person is in a world hostile to him, but he cannot live without it.
The basic principle of realism- the conditionality of a person's character by his connections with the world.
Dostoevsky himself contrasted his realism with the realism of the "typical", that is, those who supported the basic principle of realism.
Specificity of Dostoevsky's realism:
1. Universalism
Historical and sociological meaning lies in the breadth of generalizations. In the fate of a modern personality, he was able to show the movement of all human history (Ivan Karamazov). Dostoevsky's man is determined by the way of life, the cultural and historical environment, the state of life, and the qualities of the national character.
Religious and philosophical meaning was well revealed by religious philosophers (Rozanov and others) - an appeal to the fundamental problems and mysteries of human existence: about the meaning of life, about faith, unbelief, Christ, the religious concept of man.
2. Anthropocentrism
The center of Dostoevsky's works is the question of man. First of all, he is interested in spiritual duality (schismatics, Ivan Karamazov). He tries to analyze the reasons for the dichotomy:
Historical. In the minds of a person in transitional eras, different value systems collide. The era of atheism - moral guidelines are lost.
The religious nature of the human soul. In the beginnings that are inaccessible to knowledge - God and the devil (???). "The human heart is the battlefield of God and the devil" ("BK")
The moral nature of man. The ratio of good and evil. Almost at the same time, Dostoevsky evaluates evil in a person in different ways: it is present in a person from the very beginning or is acquired. Man is ethical by nature - he always, albeit somewhere in the depths of his soul, imagines that there is good in a man ("to find a man in a man").
3. Tragedy: heightened concentration of human consciousness, a world in a state of chaos, decay, crisis (Zilderovich "Vortex clubbing" is a world image), a person in tragic circumstances, an attempt to renew society through individual efforts >>> dialectic of good. A personality in the highest degree of development devotes itself to serving others >>> the laws of selfishness are conquered by the laws of humanism.
Implementation of specifics:
Universalism manifests itself in: Variety of creative sources . Lots of prototypes.
The scale of the characters. The general significance of the reflected phenomena
Anthropocentrism manifests itself in: Polyphonic staging of the hero, i.e. the dominant of the general idea is the self-consciousness of the hero . There are many independent voices in the novels
Tragedy manifests itself in: The tragic structure of the plot, characters.
The ratio of the typical and the social. You can typify the repetitive, everyday (Goncharov). Dostoevsky typified the exceptional - “the thought of conjecturing” (psychologism is the exclusive). On the other hand, Raskolnikov's crime is sociologically determined. Early Dostoevsky is a small man Late Dostoevsky - ideological novels. The idea is a plot and character-forming beginning >>> ideologization of the psyche, everyday details, etc.
Duality detail (?? ) the image of extremely controversial characters,
creation of a system of twins. It is as if some feature is detached from the hero, which is actualized in another person (Ivan Karamazov - devil, Smerdyakov. Raskolnikov - Luzhin, Svidrigailov (worst), Sonya). The FSF approach to the family theme is to depict the history of all mankind using the example of one family. "Petersburg text" - Toprov's term - the entire array of Russian literature dedicated to St. Petersburg. Negative semantics of St. Petersburg. He is working on the "Petersburg myth" - a ghost town that grew up in a swamp. One day he will disappear and in this swamp there will be only a bronze horseman for beauty ("The Player"). Motives of cold, rain, homeless, hungry dogs.
One of the main features of Dostoevsky's works is that the characters are ideological heroes,there is a conflict of ideas in his novels... D. himself called this conflict "pro et contra", meaning "for" or "against" faith. In the artistic space of D.'s novels, there is usually conflict of 2 ideas: Raskolnikov - Sonya Marmeladova; Elder Zosima - Ivan Karamazov. So, for example, Rodion Raskolnikov is fascinated by the theory, the essence of which is the division of people into “having the right” and “trembling creatures”. Almost all of Dostoevsky's heroes have their own ideas and implement them: “Svidrigailov and Luzhin live according to the principle“ everything is allowed ”, Sonechka Marmeladova sincerely believes in God, loves people and does not allow herself to judge them.
Typology of heroes in the works of Dostoevsky 1840 - 1850 (??)
Dostoevsky's heroes are very diverse. They are created by the environment around them. Creating his heroes, Dostoevsky, as it were, penetrates into the “secret” of man, as Skatov put it.
Little Man type
FM Dostoevsky is not just a continuer of traditions in Russian literature, but becomes the author of one leading theme - the theme of “poor people”, “humiliated and insulted”. That is why Dostoevsky's work is so whole thematically. Like many outstanding Russian writers, Dostoevsky already in his first novel, Poor People, addresses the theme of the “little man”.
The hero of Poor People, Makar Devushkin, is a poor and miserable official; he, too, has been rewriting papers all his life, his colleagues scoff at him, and his superiors scold him. Outwardly, in dress, boots, he looks like the hero of Gogol's "Overcoat". Dostoevsky made a simple but ingenious change in Gogol's composition: instead of a thing ("The Overcoat") he put a living human face (Varenka), and a wonderful transformation took place.
Devushkin's physical suffering, powerlessness to help Varenka when she is threatened with starvation, when she is sick and offended by evil people, brings the meek and quiet Makar Alekseevich to despair and rebellion.
Dostoevsky shows the "little man" as a deeper personality than Samson Vyrin and Eugene in Pushkin. Depth of the image is achieved, firstly, by other artistic means. Poor People is a novel in letters, in contrast to Gogol's and Chekhov's stories. It is not by chance that Dostoevsky chooses this genre, since the main goal of the writer is to convey and show all the inner movements, experiences of his hero.
The "little man" is more vulnerable, for him it is scary that others may not see him as a spiritually rich person. Their own self-awareness also plays a huge role. The way they treat themselves, whether they feel they are individuals, makes them constantly assert themselves, even in their own eyes. Dostoevsky's "little man" is also capable of high feelings.
Dreamer type
Dostoevsky's story "White Nights" is distinguished by a greater depth of penetration into the type of dreamer, the study of "daydreaming" as a socio-psychological phenomenon. Dostoevsky's hero meets a dreamer girl Nastenka, who is the bride of another. Appreciating the noble heart of the dreamer, responding to it with warmth and sympathy, Nastenka still preferred a more real person. “Why is he not you? she asked. "He is worse than you, although I love him more than you." These words contain a sentence to the dreamer, the inevitability and inevitability of his tragic fate.
For the first time a generalized description of the dreamer is given by him in the feuilletons "Petersburg Chronicle" (1847); The author pays special attention here to the socio-psychological interpretation of the type of the Petersburg intellectual dreamer as a phenomenon characteristic of the social life of Russia in the 1840s.
"White Nights" (1848) with the central figure of the narrator - the Dreamer (current ed. T. 2), in many ways anticipating the type of heroes in later stories and novels of the 1860s (Ivan Petrovich in "The Humiliated and Insulted", The Man from the Underground, Raskolnikov, etc.)
Double, man from the underground
The essence and forms of bifurcation of the protagonist of the story "The Double" by Yakov
Petrovich Golyadkin, are revealed here in specific plot situations.
Already at the beginning of the story, we see that the general psychological background of the personality
Golyadkin is uncertainty, hesitation in the choice between diametrically opposite possibilities. Golyadkin's double - Golyadkin Jr., personifying the negative thoughts of the hero, traumatizes the psyche of the latter, being her own product, torments the heart and extinguishes his mind. With horror, Golyadkin Sr. recoiled from himself as from a real enemy, fell into the dark abyss of madness. Everything base that he sometimes thought about - all this presented him as if in reality his sick imagination. All this is his double. Describing Golyadkin as his "most important underground type", Dostoevsky pointed to the motives connecting "The Double" with the psychological problems of his later stories and novels. The theme of the spiritual “underground” of Golyadkin, outlined in The Double, received in the conditions of the subsequent period of the ideological and creative evolution of Dostoevsky an in-depth development and a different interpretation in Notes from the Underground and the novels of the 1860-1870s up to The Brothers Karamazov (scene of Ivan's conversation with a devil in the chapter "Ivan Fyodorovich's Nightmare"), and the motive of the double, which stood at the center of Dostoevsky's early story, anticipated the theme of those lower psychological "doubles" (close to the main character in some of their features and opposed by others) that are usually surrounded in large novels Dostoevsky's image of the hero (Raskolnikov - Luzhin - Svidrigailov in Crime and Punishment, Ivan - Smerdyakov - the devil in The Brothers Karamazov, etc.).
Criticism:
Vyacheslav Ivanov, defining the new genre originality of Dostoevsky's novels, called his works novel - tragedy since his novels show the tragedy of personality, loneliness, alienation. The hero is always faced with the problem of choice, and he himself must decide which path he will take.
Mikhail Mikhailovich Bakhtin, defining the structural feature of Dostoevsky's novels, speaks of polyphony(polyphony). D.'s polyphonic novel now opposes the previously dominant monologue novel in Russian literature, where the author's voice prevailed. And Dostoevsky's voice of the author is not audible, he is on a par with his characters. Only the voices of the characters are heard, the author allows them to express themselves to the end. The position of the author himself can be seen through the statements of his favorite characters (Alyosha Karamazov, Prince Myshkin). We will not find here any author's deviations, as in Leo Nikolaevich Tolstoy.
D. portrays not just a person, but his self-consciousness, the hero interests him as one of the points of view on the world and on himself. In D.'s case, the hero talks about himself. Dreams are extremely subjective and even more so characterizing the heroes. Dostoevsky intuitively realized this before psychologists began to study the subconscious. In the first painful dream, we see that Raskolnikov's nature resists violence even when he refuses to admit it to himself in reality.
According to Bakhtin, Dostoevsky's heroes are internally incomplete. There is something in man that only he himself can discover in a free act of self-knowledge. Note that Dostoevsky's favorite form was the form of confession.
Oscar Wilde said that "Dostoevsky's main merit is that he never fully explains his characters, and Dostoevsky's heroes always amaze with what they do or do, and conceal in themselves to the end the eternal mystery of being." This just correlates with what D. called "realism in the highest degree." Another interesting feature of Dostoevsky's poetics, highlighted by Bakhtin, is ambivalence, that is, the combination of the opposite (life and death, humanism and contempt for people, love and hate).
Bakhtin also notes:
In Dostoevsky's conception, the hero is a bearer of a full-fledged word, and not a dumb, mute subject of the author's word. The author's idea about the hero is about the word. Therefore, the author's word about the hero is a word about the word. It is focused on the hero, as a word, and therefore dialogically addressed to him. The author speaks with the whole structure of his novel not about the hero, but with the hero.