Everyday life and customs of medieval Russia. Life and customs in the Middle Ages Life and customs of the early Middle Ages

08.03.2020

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Content:
1.Introduction ……………………………………………………………………… 3
2. Brightness and acuity of life …………………………………………………… .4
3. Chivalry …………………………………………………………………. 7
4. The significance of the cathedral in the medieval city ………………………………… 10
5. Citizen and time ……………………………………………………… ..14
6.Crime of the Middle Ages …………………………………………… ..16
7. The role of the church ……………………………………………………………… ..17
7.1 The role of the church in education …………………………………………… .18
8. Conclusion ……………………………………………………………… ..19
Appendix ………………………………………………………………… ... 20
List of used literature …………………………………………… ..21

1. Introduction
... I wanted to take a closer look at the life of those times. How did people live? What was their morality? What were you guided by in life? What day-to-day worries occupied their minds? How strongly do the interests of people of the present and that time contrast? As now there were big cities, squares, but since then a lot has changed: if earlier on the square one could hear
the creak of wheels, the clatter of hooves, the clatter of wooden shoes, the shouts of peddlers, the rumble and clink of craft workshops, but now this has been replaced by the frantic pace of city streets, industrial factories. How have people changed?
I was interested to find out what role the cathedral played. And why so much time was devoted to the construction of the cathedral. What meaning did the cathedral bring to public life?
2. Brightness and acuity of life
When the world was five centuries younger, all life events took on forms outlined much more sharply than in our time. Suffering and joy, misfortune and good fortune are much more palpable; human experiences retained the degree of completeness and spontaneity with which the child's soul perceives sorrow and joy to this day. Every action, every action followed a developed and expressive ritual, rising to a solid and unchanging lifestyle. Important events: birth, marriage, death - thanks to the sacraments of the Church, reached the splendor of the mystery. Things not so significant, such as travel, work, business or friendly visit, were also accompanied by repeated blessings, ceremonies, sayings and furnished with one or another ritual.
Disasters and deprivation had nowhere to expect relief, at that time they were much more painful and terrible. Disease and health were much more different, the frightening darkness and severe cold in winter were a real evil. Nobility and wealth were drunk with greater greed and more earnestly, for they were much more acutely opposed to blatant poverty and rejection. A cloak lined with fur, a hot fire on the hearth, wine and joke, a soft and comfortable bed gave that tremendous pleasure, which later, perhaps thanks to English novels, invariably became the most vivid embodiment of everyday joys. All aspects of life were displayed arrogantly and rudely. The lepers twirled their rattles and gathered in processions, the beggars screamed on the porches, exposing their squalor and ugliness. Conditions and estates, titles and professions differed in clothing. Noble gentlemen moved about only shining with the splendor of weapons and outfits, all out of fear and envy. The administration of justice, the appearance of merchants with goods, weddings and funerals were proclaimed loudly with shouts, processions, weeping and music. The lovers wore the colors of their lady, the members of the fraternity - their emblem, the supporters of the influential person - the corresponding badges and distinctions.
In the external appearance of cities and villages, variegation and contrasts also prevailed. The medieval city did not pass, like ours, into slovenly outskirts with ingenuous houses and dull factories, but stood out as a single whole, encircled by walls and bristling with formidable towers. No matter how high and massive the stone houses of merchants or nobility were, the buildings of temples with their masses reigned majestically over the city.
The difference between summer and winter was felt more sharply than in our life, as well as between light and darkness, silence and noise. The modern city is hardly aware of impenetrable darkness, dead silence, the impressive impact of a lonely light or a single distant cry.
Because of the constant contrasts, the diversity of forms of everything that touched the mind and feelings, everyday life aroused and kindled passion, which manifested itself either in unexpected explosions of gross unbridledness and brutal cruelty, then in impulses of spiritual responsiveness, in the changeable atmosphere of which the life of the medieval city proceeded.
But one sound invariably overshadowed the noise of restless life; no matter how varied, he did not mix with anything and exalted everything that was superior to the sphere of order and clarity. This bell ringing bells in everyday life were likened to warning good spirits, which in familiar voices proclaimed sorrow and joy, peace and anxiety, summoned the people and warned of impending danger. They were called by their first names: Roland, Fat, Jacqueline - and everyone understood the meaning of this or that ringing. And although the bells sounded almost incessantly, attention to their ringing was not dulled. In the continuation of the notorious judicial duel between two townspeople in 1455, which plunged into a state of incredible tension both the city and the entire Burgundian court, a large bell - "a terrifying rumor," according to Chatelaine, rang until the fight was over. On the bell churches of Our Lady in Antwerp there still hangs an old alarm bell, cast in 1316 and nicknamed "Orida", i.e. horrida is scary. What an incredible excitement must have gripped everyone, when all the churches and monasteries of Paris sounded the bells from morning to evening - and even at night - on the occasion of the election of the pope, who was supposed to end the schism, or in honor of the conclusion of peace between the bourguignons and armagnacs.
A profound, moving spectacle was undoubtedly a procession. In bad times - and they happened quite often - processions followed each other, day after day, week after week. When the disastrous strife between the Orleans and Burgundy houses eventually led to open civil war and King Charles VI in 1412. deployed oriflamma, so that, together with John the Fearless, oppose the Armagnacs, who had betrayed their homeland, having entered into an alliance with the British, in Paris, during the king's stay in hostile lands, it was decided to arrange processions daily. They lasted from the end of May to almost the end of July; they were attended by successive orders, guilds and corporations; each time they walked along different streets and each time they carried different relics. On these days people were fasting; everyone walked barefoot - parliamentary councilors, as well as the poorest townspeople. Many carried torches or candles. There were always children among the participants in the procession. Poor peasants came to Paris on foot, from afar, barefoot. People walked on their own or looked at those walking. And the time was very rainy.
And then there were the ceremonial exits of the brilliant nobles, furnished with all the cunning and skill for which only the imagination was enough. And in never-ending abundance - executions. The violent excitement and rude participation caused by the sight of the scaffold were an important part of the spiritual food of the people. These are performances with moralizing. For terrible crimes, terrible punishments are invented. In Brussels, a young arsonist and murderer is chained to a ring on a pole, around which bundles of brushwood and straw are burning. Addressing the audience with touching words, he softened their hearts so much that they shed all their tears out of compassion, and set up his death as an example as the most beautiful one anyone had ever seen. Mensir Mansart du Bois, Armagnac, who was supposed to be beheaded in 1411. in Paris during the Bourguignon terror, not only wholeheartedly grants forgiveness to the executioner, for which he asks him in accordance with custom, but also wants to exchange a kiss with him. "And there were crowds of people there, and almost all cried with bitter tears." Often the condemned were noble gentlemen, and then the people received even more lively satisfaction from the implementation of inexorable justice and an even more cruel lesson in the frailty of earthly greatness than any pictorial depiction of the Dance of Death could do. The authorities tried not to miss anything in order to achieve the effect of the entire performance: signs of the high dignity of the convicts accompanied them during this mournful procession.
Everyday life invariably gave endless expanse to ardent passions and children's imaginations. Modern medieval studies, which, due to the unreliability of the chronicles, mainly refers, as far as possible, to sources that are of an official nature, thereby involuntarily falls into a dangerous mistake. Such sources do not sufficiently reveal the differences in lifestyles that separate us from the Middle Ages. They make us forget about the intense pathos of medieval life. Of all the passions that color it, they tell us about only two: greed and belligerence. Who will not be amazed by the almost incomprehensible fury, the constancy with which self-interest, quarrelsomeness, and vindictiveness come to the fore in the legal documents of the late Middle Ages! Only in connection with this passion that overwhelmed everyone, which scorched all aspects of life, can one understand and accept the aspirations inherent in those people. That is why the chronicles, even though they glide on the surface of the events described and, moreover, so often give false information, are absolutely necessary if we want to see this time in its true light.
Life still retained the flavor of a fairy tale. If even the court chroniclers, noble, learned people, close to the sovereigns, saw and depicted the latter only in an archaic, hieratic guise, then what should have meant for the naive popular imagination the magical brilliance of royal power!
Community of townspeople. The uniqueness of the medieval cities of Western Europe was given by their socio-political structure. All other features - concentration of population, narrow streets, walls and towers, occupations of townspeople, economic and ideological functions and political role - could also be inherent in cities of other regions and other eras. But only in the medieval West, the city invariably appears as a self-regulating community, endowed with a relatively high degree of autonomy and possessing a special right and a rather complex structure.
3 chivalry
Chivalry is a special privileged social stratum of medieval society. Traditionally, this concept is associated with the history of the countries of Western and Central Europe, where during the heyday of the Middle Ages, in fact, all secular feudal warriors belonged to chivalry. But more often this term is used in relation to medium and small feudal lords as opposed to the nobility. The origin of chivalry dates back to that period of the early Middle Ages (7-8 centuries), when conventional forms of feudal land tenure became widespread, first for life, later hereditary. When the land was transferred to the feud, his complainant became a seigneur (suzerain), and the recipient became a vassal of the latter, which implied military service (compulsory military service did not exceed 40 days a year) and the performance of some other duties in favor of the seigneur. These included monetary "help" in the event of the initiation of a son into a knight, the wedding of a daughter, the need to ransom a seigneur who was taken prisoner. According to custom, the vassals participated in the court of the lord, were present in his council. The ceremony of formalizing vassal relations was called homage, and the oath of loyalty to the lord was called foix. If the size of the land received for the service allowed, the new owner, in turn, transferred part of it as feuds to his vassals (subinfeodation). This is how a multi-stage system of vassalage took shape ("suzerainty", "feudal hierarchy", "feudal ladder") from the supreme overlord - the king to single-shield knights who did not have their own vassals. For the continental countries of Western Europe, the rules of vassal relations reflected the principle: "the vassal of my vassal is not my vassal," while, for example, in England (Salisbury oath of 1085) a direct vassal dependence of all feudal landowners on the king was introduced with obligatory service in the royal army.
The hierarchy of vassal relations repeated the hierarchy of land holdings and determined the principle of the formation of the military militia of the feudal lords. So, along with the establishment of military-feudal relations, the formation of chivalry as a service military-feudal class took place, the heyday of which falls on the 11-14 centuries. Military science has become its main social function. The military profession gave rights and privileges, determined special class views, ethical norms, traditions, and cultural values.
The military duties of the knights included protecting the honor and dignity of the overlord, and most importantly, the land from encroachments both from neighboring feudal rulers in internecine wars, and from the troops of other states in the event of an external attack. In conditions of civil strife, the line between the protection of one's own possessions and the seizure of foreign lands was rather shaky, and the champion of justice in words often turned out to be an invader in deed, not to mention participation in campaigns of conquest organized by the royal power, such as the numerous campaigns of the German emperors in Italy. or by the Pope himself, like the Crusades. The knightly army was a powerful force. Its armament and battle tactics corresponded to military tasks, the scale of military operations and the technical level of their time. Protected by metal military armor, knightly cavalry, hardly vulnerable to foot soldiers and peasant militia, played a major role in the battle.
Feudal wars did not exhaust the social role of chivalry. In the conditions of feudal fragmentation, with the relative weakness of royal power, chivalry, fastened by the system of vassalage into a single privileged corporation, protected the feudal lords' ownership of land, the basis of their domination. A striking example of this is the history of the suppression of the largest peasant uprising in France - Jacquerie (1358-1359), which broke out during the Hundred Years War. At the same time, the knights, representing the warring parties, the British and the French, united under the banners of the Navarre king Charles the Evil and turned their weapons against the rebellious peasants, solving a common social problem. Chivalry also influenced the political processes of the era, since the social interests of the feudal class as a whole and the norms of chivalrous morality to a certain extent restrained centrifugal tendencies, limited feudal freemen. During the process of state centralization, chivalry (middle and small feudal lords) constituted the main military force of the kings in their opposition to the nobility in the struggle for the territorial unification of the country and real power in the state. This was the case, for example, in France in the 14th century, when, in violation of the previous rule of vassal law, a significant part of the chivalry was involved in the army of the king on the terms of monetary payment.
Participation in the knightly army required a certain amount of security, and the land grant was not only a reward for service, but also a necessary material condition for its implementation, since the knight acquired both a war horse and expensive heavy weapons (spear, sword, mace, armor, armor for the horse) on their own funds, not to mention the maintenance of the corresponding retinue. Knight's armor included up to 200 parts, and the total weight of military equipment reached 50 kg; over time, their complexity and cost grew. The training of future warriors was served by the system of knightly training and education. In Western Europe, boys up to 7 years old grew up in a family, later, until the age of 14, they were brought up at the seigneur's court as a page, then as a squire, and finally the ceremony of knighting them was performed.
Tradition required a knight to be knowledgeable in matters of religion, to know the rules of court etiquette, to master the "seven knightly virtues": horseback riding, fencing, skillful handling of a spear, swimming, hunting, playing checkers, composing and singing poetry in honor of a lady of the heart.
The knighting symbolized entry into a privileged estate, familiarization with its rights and duties, and was accompanied by a special ceremony. According to the European custom, the knight initiating the title, struck the initiate with a sword flat on the shoulder, pronounced the initiation formula, put on a helmet and golden spurs, presented a sword - a symbol of knightly dignity - and a shield with the emblem and motto. The initiate, in turn, took an oath of allegiance and an obligation to abide by the code of honor. The ritual often ended with a knightly tournament (duel) - a demonstration of military skill and courage.
Knightly traditions and special ethical norms have evolved over the centuries. The code of honor was based on the principle of loyalty to the overlord and duty. Among the knightly virtues were military courage and contempt for danger, pride, a noble attitude towards women, attention to members of knightly families in need of help. Stinginess and avarice were subject to condemnation, betrayal was not forgiven.
But the ideal was not always in agreement with reality. As for the predatory campaigns in foreign lands (for example, the capture of Jerusalem or Constantinople during the crusades), the knightly "exploits" brought grief, ruin, outrage and shame to more than one commoner.
The Crusades contributed to the formation of ideas, customs, morality of chivalry, the interaction of Western and Eastern traditions. During them, special organizations of Western European feudal lords - spiritual-knightly orders - arose in Palestine to protect and expand the possessions of the crusaders. These include the Order of the Johannites (1113), the Order of the Knights Templar (1118), the Teutonic Order (1128). Later, the orders of Calatrava, Sant-Iago, Alcantara operated in Spain. In the Baltic States, the Order of the Swordsmen and the Livonian Order are known. Members of the order took monastic vows (non-acquisitiveness, rejection of property, chastity, obedience), wore robes similar to monastic ones, and under them - military armor. Each order had its own distinctive clothing (for example, the Templars had a white cloak with a red cross). Organizationally, they were built on the basis of a strict hierarchy, headed by an elected master, approved by the Pope. Under the master, there was a chapter (council), with legislative functions.
The reflection of knightly morals in the field of spiritual culture opened the brightest page of medieval literature with its own special flavor, genre and style. She poeticized earthly joys in spite of Christian asceticism, glorified feat and not only embodied the ideals of chivalry, but also shaped them. Along with the heroic epic of a high patriotic sound (for example, the French Song of Roland, the Spanish Song of My Side), chivalric poetry appeared (for example, the lyrics of the troubadours and trouvers in France and the minnesingers in Germany) and the chivalrous novel (the love story of Tristan and Isolde), representing the so-called "courtly literature" (from the French courtois - courteous, chivalrous) with the obligatory cult of a lady.
In Europe, chivalry lost its significance as the main military force of feudal states from the 15th century. The harbinger of the decline of the glory of French chivalry was the so-called "battle of spurs" (July 11, 1302), when the foot militia of the Flemish townspeople defeated the French knightly cavalry. Later, the ineffectiveness of the actions of the French knightly army was clearly manifested at the first stage of the Hundred Years War, when it suffered a series of severe defeats from the British army. Chivalry was unable to withstand the competition of mercenary armies that used firearms (they appeared in the 15th century). The new conditions of the era of decomposition of feudalism and the emergence of capitalist relations led to its disappearance from the historical arena. In the 16-17 centuries. chivalry finally loses the specificity of a special class and is part of the nobility.
Brought up on the military traditions of their ancestors, representatives of the old knightly families made up the officer corps of the armies of the absolutist time, went on risky sea expeditions, carried out colonial conquests. The noble ethics of subsequent centuries, including the noble principles of fidelity to duty and worthy service to the fatherland, undoubtedly carries the influence of the knightly era.
4 the significance of the cathedral in a medieval city
For a long time, the cathedral was the only public building in the medieval city. It played the role of not only a religious, ideological, cultural, educational center, but also an administrative and, to some extent, economic center. Later, town halls and covered markets appeared, and part of the functions of the cathedral passed to them, but even then it by no means remained only a religious center. The idea that “the main tasks of the city ... served as the material basis and symbols of the conflicting social forces that dominated urban life: the castle-pillar of the secular feudal power; the cathedral is the embodiment of the power of the clergy; the town hall is the stronghold of the citizens' self-government ”(AV Ikonnikov) - this is only partially true. Their unconditional acceptance simplifies the social and cultural life of the medieval city.
It is rather difficult for a modern person to perceive the variety of functions of a medieval cathedral, its significance in all spheres of city life. The cathedral remained a temple, a cult building or became a monument of architecture and culture, a museum, a concert hall, necessary and accessible to few. His life today does not convey the fullness of his being in the past.
The medieval city was small and enclosed by walls. Residents perceived him as a whole, in an ensemble - a feeling lost in a modern city. The cathedral defines the architectural and spatial center of the city; for any type of urban planning, the cobweb of streets gravitated towards it. As the tallest building in the city, it served as a watchtower when needed. Cathedral Square was the main, and sometimes the only one. All vital public events took place or began in this square. Subsequently, when the market was moved from the suburbs to the city and a special market square appeared, one of the corners of it often adjoins the cathedral. This was the case in a number of cities in Germany and France: Dresden, Meissen, Naumburg, Montauban, Monpazier. In the city, in addition to the main cathedral, as a rule, there were also parish churches, some of the functions of the cathedral were transferred to them. In large cities, their number could be significant. So a contemporary notes in London at the end of the XII century. One hundred twenty-six such churches.
The cathedral appears to our admiring gaze in a complete and "purified form." Around it there are no those small shops and shops that, like birds' nests, were molded on all ledges and caused the demands of the city and church authorities "not to punch holes in the walls of the temple." The aesthetic irrelevance of these shops, apparently, did not bother their contemporaries at all, they became an integral part of the cathedral, did not interfere with its greatness. The silhouette of the cathedral was also different, since one or the other of its wings was constantly in the woods.
The medieval city was noisy: in a small space, there was the creak of wheels, the clatter of hooves, the clatter of wooden shoes, the screams of peddlers, the rumble and ringing of craft workshops, the voices and bells of domestic animals, which were only gradually forced out of the streets by the decrees of the city authorities, the rattles of leprosy patients. “But one sound invariably overshadowed the noise of a restless life: no matter how varied it was, it did not mix with anything and elevated everything that happened in the sphere of order and clarity. This is a bell ringing. Bells in everyday life were likened to warning good spirits, which in familiar voices proclaimed sorrow and joy, peace and alarm, summoned the people and warned of the impending danger. They were called by name: Roland, Fat-Jacqueline - and everyone understood the meaning of this or that ringing. And although their glosses sounded almost incessantly, attention to their ringing was not dulled at all ”(J. Huizinga). The cathedral spikelet made up the necessary information to all the townspeople at once: about a fire, about the sea, an attack, any emergency intra-city event. And today, the ancient "Big Paul" or "Big Ben" animate the space of the modern city.
The cathedral was the keeper of time. The bells rang out the hours of the weft service, but for a long time they heralded the beginning and end of the artisan's work. Until the XIV century. - the beginning of the spread of mechanical tower clocks - it was the cathedral bell that set the rhythm of the "well-proportioned life".
The unsleeping eye of the church accompanied the citizen from birth to death. The church accepted him into society, and she also helped him pass into the afterlife. Church ordinances and rituals were an essential part of everyday life. Baptism, engagement, marriage ceremony, funeral service and burial, confession and communion - all this connected a citizen with a cathedral or a parish church (in small towns, a cathedral was also a parish church), made him feel part of a Christian society. The cathedral also served as a burial place for wealthy citizens; some had closed ancestral tombs with tombstones there. It was not only prestigious, but also practical (as historians note, robberies of parish cemeteries took place all the time).
The relationship between the townspeople and the city clergy was far from idyllic. The chronicles of Guibert Nozhansky, Otto Freisingen, Richard Motto do not say anything good about the townspeople. In turn, in urban literature - fablio, schwankas, satirical poetry - the monk and the priest are often ridiculed. The townspeople oppose the freedom of the clergy from taxes; they strive not only to free themselves from the power of their prelates-seigneurs, but also to take under municipal control the affairs traditionally run by the church. Indicative in this respect is the evolution of the position of hospitals, which during the XIII-XIV centuries. gradually cease to be church institutions, although they retain the patronage of the church and, therefore, the inviolability of their property. However, frequent opposition to the clergy is combined with constant contacts with them in everyday life and does not prevent the townspeople from considering the construction and decoration of the cathedral as their own business.
The construction of the city cathedral was attended not only by the townspeople, but also by the peasants of the area, magnates and clergy. Medieval chronicles and other documents reflected examples of religious enthusiasm that amazed contemporaries: "Ladies, knights, all sought not only donations, but also to help the construction with their best efforts." Often, funds were collected throughout the country for the construction of the cathedral. “In the Middle Ages, a wide variety of donations, donations, contributions for the construction of the temple, which were considered as a worthy and auspicious deed, became widespread. Most often these were donations of jewelry and valuable things, sums of money or free provision of materials for future construction ”(KM Muratov). The cathedral was under construction for several decades, but the complete completion of the construction dragged on for centuries. From generation to generation, legends about the foundation and construction of the temple were indulged, more and more funds were collected, donations were made, and wills were left. The phrase of the papal legate and former chancellor of the University of Paris, Odo de Chateauroux, that "Notre Dame Cathedral was built on the pennies of poor widows", of course, should not be taken literally, but precisely on the basis of reasons. A sincere impulse of piety was combined with rivalry with a neighboring city, and in some with a desire to receive personal absolution. The beautiful cathedral was one of the important signs of prestige, demonstrating the strength and wealth of the city community. The dimensions of the temples built in very small cities, the luxury and complexity of their interiors meet the need to create something incommensurate in beauty and grandeur with everything around. The importance of the cathedral is also evidenced by the desire to immediately restore its afterbirth of the fire, and certainly in the same place, in order to preserve the usual objects of pilgrimage.
The construction of the cathedral was for many years in the center of attention of the townspeople, but it came into operation long before its final completion. The construction began with the choir part, the roof was erected, as a rule, even before the church was covered with vaults, thus the divine service could be performed quite quickly after the start of construction.
The construction and decoration of the temple served as an impetus for the development of urban artistic craft. The famous Parisian "Book of Crafts" (XIII century) reports on a number of such professions, the use of which in the daily life of the city would be very limited. Among them are painters, stone carvers, filigree makers, sculptors, makers of rosary (from coral, shells, bone, horn, amber, amber), carpets, inlays, gold and silver threads for brocade, book clasps, etc. Then the town hall, houses of magnates and city patricians living in the city, charitable institutions will be decorated. But at first, masters of applied art mainly work for the cathedral. The builders did not stay in one place, they moved from city to city, from country to country. They learned from renowned masters; the site of the cathedral under construction was a school for architects.
The lively interest of contemporaries in the process of building the temple is also evidenced by the iconographic material of the era: the plot of the construction of the cathedral is often shown in miniatures of medieval manuscripts. (Appendix A)
Relics with relics were kept in the cathedral, pilgrims flocked to it, sometimes from afar. There was a constant exchange between residents of different localities. The motley crowd of pilgrims on their way to Canterbury to bow to the relics of Thomas Beckett gave Chaucer the idea of the Canterbury Tales. The city and the temple treasured such pilgrimages: they brought substantial income.
There was a school with a singing and grammar class at the cathedral. In a small town, she was often the only one. So, in London in the XIV century. Only three church schools are known. Church book collections could be quite rich, but they were available only to a narrow circle of clergy and, possibly, urban intellectuals. Libraries at the town halls and Guildhalls appeared later. On the porch, and in winter time and in the cathedral, schoolchildren and students arranged disputes. The townspeople who attended them enjoyed the gesture and the process of the dispute itself rather than the word: the disputes were conducted in Latin. In Bologna, lectures were given to university students from the external pulpit of the Cathedral of San Stefano.
The porch of the cathedral was the liveliest place in the city: various deals were made here, people were hired here, the marriage ceremony began here, the beggars begged for alms. London lawyers on the porch of St. Pavel hosted meetings and consulted clients. The porch served as a stage for dramatic performances for a long time. On the porch, and sometimes in the church itself, so-called "church ales" were arranged - a prototype of future charity bazaars, where wine, various local handicrafts and agricultural products were sold. The money raised went to the maintenance of the church, the needs of the parish, in particular, and to pay for festive processions and theatrical performances. A custom that was constantly condemned, but over time it became more and more frequent. These revels greatly angered the church reformers and, in general, the zealots of piety.
For a long time, the city cathedral served as a place for municipal meetings and was used for various public needs. True, for the same purpose the monastery churches and the houses of city lords were used. The temple was always a ready and open refuge in days of grief, anxiety and doubt, it could also become a refuge in the literal sense, guaranteeing immunity for a while. The cathedral tried to accommodate everyone, but on especially solemn days there were too many who wanted to. And despite the strict etiquette of the medieval way, which for us has already become a frozen stereotype, there was a crush in the cathedral and not always a harmless crush. Contemporaries left evidence of the riots during coronation ceremonies at Reims Cathedral.
The cathedral was one of the most significant (if not the most significant) realizations of medieval culture. He contained the entire amount of knowledge of his era, all its materialized ideas about beauty. He satisfied the needs of the soul for the lofty and beautiful, non-everyday, and simple, and intellectual. “The symbol of the universe was the cathedral,” writes a modern historian, “its structure was conceived in everything similar to the cosmic order: a review of its internal plan, dome, altar, side-altars was supposed to give a complete picture of the structure of the world. Each of its details, as well as the layout as a whole, was full of symbolic meaning. The person praying in the temple contemplated the beauty and harmony of divine creation. " It is, of course, impossible to restore in its entirety the way an ordinary citizen perceived the service. The experience of "temple action" was both a deeply individual and at the same time a collective process. Education, ritualized norms of behavior were superimposed on the piety, impressionability, education of the individual.

4 the citizen and time
The Middle Ages inherited the methods of measuring time from ancient times. Devices for such measurements were divided into two large groups: measuring time intervals and showing astronomical time. The first can be attributed to the hourglass, known since antiquity, but recorded in Western Europe only in 1339, and the fire clock - candles or oil lamps, the combustion of which occurs within a certain period of time. The second type of clock includes solar and mechanical. The solar gnomon, known as far back as Egypt in the 5th millennium BC, became widespread in the Roman Empire and were almost an obligatory decoration of many villas and houses. An intermediate type of clock can be considered water-clepsydras. Clepsydras have also been known since the 15th century. BC. in Egypt. Some of them are two connected flasks, in which water is poured from one to another in a fixed time - such, for example, are known in Greece since about 450. BC. "Hours for Speakers". Another type of water clock is large cisterns, in which water also pours from one to another, but for many days or, when one of the cisterns is connected to a natural or artificial water stream, it is constant, and the absolute time is determined by the water level. About 150g. BC. Ctesibius of Alexandria invented a water clock in which a rising float turned a shaft with an arrow. This clock was, rather, a calendar calculated for a year, and the hand marked the day; every hour, however, the water threw out a pebble, which fell with a clang on the metal plate. Later, the clepsydras were modified so that the hand did not show the day, but the hour. (The division of the day by 24 hours, and the hour by 60 minutes is known in Mesopotamia in the II millennium BC)
In the early Middle Ages, accurate measurement of time, especially of the day, was not widely used. The first known then clocks - solar and water clocks - were built according to the instructions of the famous philosopher Boethius (c. 480-524) by order of Theodoric the Great (c. 454-526; king of the Ostrogoths from 471, king of Italy from 493); they were intended as a gift to Gunwold, the king of the Burgundians. From the letter accompanying this gift, it was clear that in the barbarian kingdoms that arose in Gaul, the clock was unknown (although there were both gnomons and clepsydras in Roman villas in Gaul).
The low prevalence of clocks in the early Middle Ages is explained, firstly, by the attitude (in a sense, indifference) of people to the time in which they proceeded from natural cyclicality and were guided by signs and phenomena observed for centuries. Secondly, by technical difficulties: both clepsydras and gnomons were motionless, cumbersome and (especially the first) complex structures, and the sundial, moreover, could show the time only during the day and in clear weather.
Many medieval thinkers paid much attention to the careful gradation of time. For example, Honorius of Augustodunsky (first half of the 12th century) divided the hour into 4 "points", 10 "minutes", 15 "parts", 40 "moments", 60 "signs" and 22560 "atoms". But nevertheless, the unit of measurement of time remained at best the hour, and that, rather, in liturgical use, while in everyday life - the day. Gregory of Tours (c. 538-594) in his work "De cursu stellarum ratio" suggested calculating the time by the ascent of the stars and by the number of psalms read.
For a long time, there was no division of time into equal hours: the light and dark hours of the day were each divided by 12 hours, so that the hours of the day and night were not the same and differed at different times of the year. The primary division of the day into 24 hours was made in the Middle East, at whose latitude day and night are approximately equal throughout the year, but in the northern regions of Europe the difference was striking. One of the first, if not the first thinker, to express the desire to equalize the clock, was the Anglo-Saxon Bede the Venerable (c. 673-731), as is evident from his treatise "De ratione computi". He or his entourage owns the first calendar, which indicates the distribution of light and dark time at the latitude of the middle part of the British Isles: “December - night hours XVIII, daytime - VI; March - night hours XII, daytime - XII; June-night hours VI; daytime - XVIII ", etc. Already after the invention of mechanical clocks and before the beginning of the XVII century. Very complex adjustable drives were used, which made it possible to divide the day into unequal time intervals - hours of the day and night, so that the idea of the hour as a constant unit of time spread rather slowly and initially only in church use, where it was caused by liturgical necessity. Particularly active, the constancy of the hour began to be maintained in the 10th century, in the process of the Cluny reform, in order to unify the church ritual, which, among other things, provided for the simultaneity of church services (they did not know about the standard time at that time).
Researchers of the XIX century. The invention of the mechanical clock was attributed to the famous scientist Herbert Orilyaksky (c. 940-1003), who became in 999. pope under the name of Sylvester II. In fact, he only improved (c. 983) the clepsydra, and now its axis rotated under the influence of falling water; This made it possible to subsequently replace the force of water with the weight of weights, i.e. facilitated the creation of mechanical watches.
The reasons for the appearance of the latter were more social and psychological than technical. The exact measurement of time was carried out only within the church space, outside the time was not marked so accurately.
6. Crime of the Middle Ages.
Until the beginning of the 20th century, historians painted romantic pictures of equality and communal unity of medieval townspeople, allegedly opposing their secular and spiritual lords as a united front.
The study of urban poverty is hampered by the state of the sources, especially for the early centuries of urban history. Sources become more eloquent only as we approach the late Middle Ages. But it would be a mistake to conclude from this that poverty is an exceptional phenomenon of these centuries.
Below we will talk about specific representatives of the underworld of medieval France and Burgundy - about professional thieves.
The problems of urban crime have constantly occupied the minds of officials. Potential criminals were those who refused to work and led a riotous lifestyle, visiting taverns and brothels. These lazy people set a "bad example" for those around them, spending all their time gambling and drinking under the pretext that wages were not high enough. Secondly, people who had no decent profession at all.
The city was an ideal place for the creation and existence of a gang. You could meet anyone on its streets. Moreover, theft is considered not just a profession - there is a certain specialization in it, as in any craft.
Already in the XIII century. In Paris, there is a gang of "livilains Baubuins" who lured simpletons into Notre Dame Cathedral and, while they stared at the sculptures of Pepin and Charlemagne, cut off their wallets from their belts.
There are the following types of masters, thieves' specialties:
 "burglar" - one who knows how to open locks
 "collector" - one who cuts wallets
 "mocker" is a thief who lures a simpleton, plays
 "sender" is a killer
 “scammer” - one who sells fake gold bars.
Actually, nothing could really exclude them from the life of society. Professional criminals, they lived in "symbiosis" with the urban population, they could even cooperate with the authorities, especially with the nobility.
7. The role of the church during the Early Middle Ages
The most important feature of medieval culture is the special role of the Christian doctrine and the Christian church. In the context of the general decline of culture immediately after the collapse of the Roman Empire, only the church for many centuries remained the only social institution common to all countries, tribes and states of Western Europe. The Church was not only the dominant political institution, but also had a dominant influence directly on the consciousness of the population. In a difficult and meager life, against the background of extremely limited and unreliable knowledge about the world around it, the church offered people a harmonious system of knowledge about the world, its structure, forces acting in it. This picture of the world completely determined the mentality of believing villagers and townspeople and was based on images and interpretations of the Bible.
The entire cultural life of European society during this period was largely determined by Christianity.
The population was traditionally committed to pagan cults and sermons, and the description of the lives of the saints was not enough to convert it to the true faith. They were converted to a new religion with the help of state power. However, even a long time after the official recognition of a single religion, the clergy had to struggle with the persistent remnants of paganism among the peasantry.
The church destroyed temples and idols, forbade worshiping the gods and making sacrifices, and arranging pagan holidays and rituals. Severe punishments threatened those who practiced fortune telling, divination, spells, or simply believed in them.
The formation of the Christianization process was one of the sources of acute conflicts, since the people often associated the concept of people's freedom with the old faith, while the connection of the Christian church with state power and oppression was quite clear.
In the minds of the masses of the rural population, regardless of belief in certain gods, behavioral attitudes were preserved in which people felt directly involved in the cycle of natural phenomena.
This constant influence of nature on man and the belief in the influence of man on the course of natural phenomena with the help of a whole system of supernatural means was a manifestation of the magical consciousness of the medieval community, an important feature of its worldview.
In the minds of a medieval European, the world was seen as a kind of arena of confrontation between the forces of heaven and hell, good and evil. At the same time, the consciousness of people was deeply magical, everyone was absolutely sure of the possibility of miracles and perceived everything that the Bible reported literally.
In the most general plan, people saw the world in accordance with a certain hierarchical ladder, or rather, as a symmetrical scheme, reminiscent of two pyramids folded at their bases. The pinnacle of one of them is God. Below are the levels of sacred characters - Apostles, archangels, angels, etc. At some level, people are included in this hierarchy: first the Pope and the cardinals, then the clergy of a lower level, then the laity, starting with the secular power. Then, farther from God and closer to the earth, there were animals and plants, then - the earth itself, already completely inanimate. And then there was, as it were, a mirror image of the upper, earthly and heavenly, hierarchy, but in a different dimension, as if with a minus sign, according to the growth of evil and closeness to Satan, who was the embodiment of Evil.
Thus, the signs of early medieval culture can be considered adherence to tradition, the conservatism of all social life, the dominance of the stereotype in artistic creation, the stability of magical thinking, which was imposed on the church.
7.1 The role of the church in education
In the 5th-9th centuries, all schools in European countries were in the hands of the church. She drew up a training program, selected students. The Christian Church preserved and used elements of secular culture left over from the ancient education system: disciplines inherited from antiquity were taught in church schools: grammar, rhetoric, dialectics with elements of logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music.
Medieval university science was called scholasticism. The influence of the church on medieval universities was enormous. A woman in the Middle Ages, as a rule, with very rare exceptions, did not receive an education. Some noble ladies could afford to be educated, but usually the woman was kept in the background, and even if noble men did not receive education, since they were fascinated by military affairs, and not books, then women and even more so in this sense, a lot of effort and money was not spent ...
For Byzantium of the early Middle Ages, the strengthening of the position of the Christian Church in the field of education was inherent, which was expressed in the persecution of ancient philosophy. Ancient philosophy was replaced by theology. A prominent representative of the Byzantine culture of this time was Patriarch Photius, the compiler of "Mariobiblion" - a collection of reviews on 280 works of mainly ancient authors, authors of theological writings.
8 Conclusion
Answering the questions I posed at the beginning, we can say that no matter how barbaric the Middle Ages were, it cultivated a sense of duty, at least out of pride. No matter how limited the amount of knowledge of that time was, at least it taught first of all to think and only then to act; and then there was no ulcer of modern society - complacency. And the Middle Ages are considered naive.
Undoubtedly, the cathedral and the church played an important role, defining the mentality of the inhabitants.
Along with the poverty of that time, the problems of crime, luxurious trips of nobles, knightly competitions were arranged.
The courage and dexterity of the knights, the diversity of forms of everything that touched the mind and feelings, everyday life aroused and kindled passion, which manifested itself either in unexpected explosions of gross unbridledness and brutal cruelty, then in impulses of spiritual responsiveness, in the changeable atmosphere of which the life of the medieval city proceeded. In one word, life retained the flavor of a fairy tale.
Appendix A

Bibliography:
1. A.A. Svanidze "City in the medieval civilization of Western Europe" v.3, v.4 M. "Science", 2000
2. L.M. Bragin "culture of revival and religious life of the era" M. "Science", 1997
3. A. Ya. Gurevich "problems of medieval folk culture" M., 1981
4. J. Huizinga "Autumn of the Middle Ages"

As soon as it comes to medieval knights or chivalry in general, immediately before our mind's eye there is one and the same, in essence, image: the image of valiant and noble warriors in light shining armor. Here is their cavalcade trotting out of the castle gates under bright banners that delight the eye with freshness of colors. Here they are - some with a spear at the ready, some with a sparkling sword in hand - rush into battle to defend the right of the undeservedly offended, to protect the widow and the orphan ...

However, it is worth looking at this beautiful image, as it begins to blur, break up, losing its original uniqueness. Historical reality was probably much more complex before the stereotypical image of a knight was formed in the public consciousness, the same one that served as a model for Cervantes for his immortal, cruel and at the same time touching caricature.

To begin with, the word "knight" itself has more than one meaning. Initially, it obviously indicates a warrior-horseman (this is obvious for a Frenchman, a Spaniard, an Italian, a German, but, for example, not for an Englishman. - F.N.). But chivalry is not only about cavalry. Very early this term was applied to a warrior of a very respectable social status, but nevertheless it becomes a noble title much later. Chivalry, in fact, is associated with the nobility, but, be that as it may, these categories are not at all synonymous. Finally, the knight is the bearer of a special ethics, various aspects of which appear in different eras with varying degrees of intensity. Knightly morality presupposes: honest fulfillment of all obligations associated with military service - vassal or feudal, devotion to the Church and the king, as well as to his patron, lord or beautiful lady; the greatness of the soul; a sense of honor; humility mixed with pride. From such and such elements, taken at different times in different proportions and under different names, an ideal is formed - the ideal offered to the knight by the main characters on the medieval stage: first of all by the Church, which has an almost complete monopoly on culture and which by all means of medieval The "mass media" persistently spreads its own ideology; then, by the secular aristocracy, which is connected with knighthood by blood ties, which gradually acquires its social identity and, in opposition to church influence, brings to the fore the ways of feeling, acting and thinking peculiar only to it.

It was the interaction of these two poles, ecclesiastical and aristocratic, that gave soldier, which was originally a knight, professional deontology, public dignity and a multifaceted ideal. This it gave birth to chivalry as such, gradually, over the centuries, cutting and polishing it - until Bayard emerged from the ranks of the latter, "a knight without fear and reproach" - both in life and on the pages of historical works of the XV-XVIII centuries. The image sculpted by Epinal fascinates us, but this enchanting - and, like a mask, the frozen face hides the changing historical reality behind itself like a thick curtain. The task of this book is to restore the history of chivalry, marking the main stages of its development with milestones.

Chivalry is, first of all, a profession. The profession of those elite warriors who serve their sovereign (king) or their lord (lord). The special methods of fighting this heavy cavalry rather soon transform it - due to the high cost of weapons and the training required to own it - into an aristocratic elite. Military service is increasingly concentrated in the hands of this social class, which eventually begins to regard it as its exclusive privilege.

Such military service has its own ethics. Ethics stemming from two sources. The first of these is the old military morality, which requires obedience to the lord, courage, and combat skill. The second is the old royal ideology, which appealed not only to the fulfillment of a purely military duty, but, moreover, imposed obligations of a somewhat different kind on chivalry, such as, for example, the protection of the country and its inhabitants, patronage towards the weak, to widows and orphans. ... The upbringing of the military elite in the same spirit was continued by the Church already in the feudal era itself, when the decline of royal power revealed the power of the owners of castles and their armed servants.

However, the mentality of chivalry was determined not only by this ideal inspired by the Church. Literature, which was of a more secular nature, expressed the aspirations of the knights themselves and gave them a model of behavior based on the example of their heroes. This model, perhaps even more than the factors mentioned above, contributed to the development of a purely knightly ideology based on values that the knights themselves held dear above all and which were defended and strengthened by the knights, by no one else. This ideology is not devoid of greatness, but it also has its flaws. To recognize them does not mean to reject the chivalrous ideal, which, perhaps, continues to live in the depths of our souls.

Notes:

Translator's Notes

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republican Approx. per.

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vigilante squad friends Approx. per.

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ordo"(Plural ordines ex ordine- in order, in turn. - Approx. per.

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12 Binary - two-term. - Approx. per.

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Approx. per.

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14 Pataria (it. pataria Approx. per.

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Hue, Hugues hhhu Hue Approx. per.

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Approx. per.

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17 Perceval or Parzival Approx. per.

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Brétagne ancient Approx. per.

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courtoisie Approx. per.

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Arnold W.

Barber R.

Barbero A.

Bumke Joachim. Jackson W. T. H. et E. New York, 1982.

Cardini F.

Chênerie M. L.

Cohen G.

Contamine P.

Coss P. R.

Duby G.

Flori J.

Gautier L. La Chevalerie. Paris, 1884.

Jackson W. T. N.

Keen M. Chivalry. London, 1984.

Parisse M.

Reuter H. G.

Ritter J. P.

Stanesco M.

Winter J. M., van.

Literature in Russian

Barber M.

Barg M.A.

Bessmertny Yu. L.

Bitsilli P.M.

Block M.

Boytsov M.A.

Bordonov J.

V.P. Budanova

Volkova Z.N.

Gurevich A. Ya.

Duby J.

Egorov D. Ya.

Zaborov M.A. Crusades. M., 1956.

Zaborov M.A.

Ivanov K.

Cardini F.

A. V. Kartashov Ecumenical Councils. M., 1998.

Kolesnitsky N.F.

Konrad N.K. West and East. M., 1966.

Contamine F.

Korsunsky A.R., Gunther R.

Le Goff J.

A.P. Levandovsky

Laurent T.

A.D. Lyublinskaya

Meletinsky E. M.

Melik-Gaikazova H. N.

Mikhailov A.D.

Moulin L.

Matthews J. Grail tradition. M., 1997.

Pasturo M.

Ponyon E.

Roy J. History of chivalry. M, 1996.

Wallace-Headryll J.M.

Flory J.

Fustel de Coulanges.

Illustrations

Translator's Notes

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1 Deontology is a section of ethics that deals with the problems of debt and due. - Approx. per.

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2 Estates, first of all, are not "established" by the imperial edict, the latter is capable, at most, of legalizing the actually already existing estate, "prescribing" its rights and obligations, But in this case there was no need for this kind of legislative activity: the horsemen were still in the early republican period, that is, several centuries before Augustus (63 BC - 14 AD) were constituted as the second, after the senatorial, estate, with clearly defined rights and responsibilities.

It is true that the equestrian estate under Augustus steeply "went up the hill", occupying the highest and most lucrative posts in the hastily cobbled together imperial administration. - Approx. per.

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3 This statement is too categorical and needs to be clarified. Cavalry in republican Rome was a traditional and even more honorable branch of the army, as it was formed from the patrician nobility, that is, that faction that formed the estate of "horsemen". Later, the "horsemen" the further, the more they departed from military service, making a career in the field of civil administration or going headlong into the wholesale trade, into usury and tax collection. Their place in the army was gradually taken by the Turms (squadrons) recruited from the barbarians, but even in the battle of Pharsalus (48 BC), on this "last day of the Republic", the cavalry of Gnaeus Pompey consisted mostly of Roman aristocrats ... With such a social composition, it could in no way become (see the next paragraph) an object of neglect. - Approx. per.

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4 As the reader probably remembered, the epithet "faithful" was applied, if not exclusively, then first of all to those who in battle surrounded their leader with a dense ring. It is synonymous vigilante, that is, by definition, an aristocrat. By the way, in Russia, as well as in the West, squad there is a commonwealth held together by the bonds of loyalty to the prince; this is - friends prince, with whom he likes to feast and go into battle. In Russia, the squad was divided into senior (boyars) and "young" (grid, "youths"). Senior vigilantes came to the prince's service at the head of their own squads, which required considerable expenses for their maintenance. Now we come to the concept of the "loyalties" that needed to be created. "Faithful", this Western equivalent of the Russian boyar, also brought his squad into the service of the Frankish king, but he did it, one must think, less disinterestedly than his Russian counterpart. Such "loyalty" in the West, earlier than in Russia, found its expression in a certain amount of land allotment. This is the meaning of this term. - Approx. per.

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5 The latter assumption finds itself indirectly confirmed in the memoirs of Russian participants in the Caucasian War of the 19th century. Murids of Shamil (sometimes) and Kabardian princes (quite often) went to battle wearing chain mail made by Dagestan craftsmen. Such a chain mail made its owner invulnerable in a fight with checkers and for a Cossack's pike; it could only be shot, and even then only from close range. She fit in the palm of your hand. - Approx. per.

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6 The list of battles given by J. Flory can hardly serve as a sufficient justification for his thesis.

In the battle of Lechfeld, the light, that is, not at all knightly, the Hungarian cavalry suffered a heavy defeat, colliding not only with the close-knit infantry, but also with the mounted knightly militia, collected from most of the Holy Roman Empire, including the Czech Republic. Obviously, this defeat has nothing to do with the question being raised. At Hastings and at Crécy, the knightly cavalry was forced to attack the infantry (at Crécy, by the way, the infantry consisted of dismounted English knights mixed with archers), so to speak "from the bottom up", climbing a steep slope and thereby losing its main "trump card", the power of the ram blow. Under Courtray, the cavalry attack of the French knights was drowned out, since it was conducted through a meadow, which turned out to be a swamp. The Flemish infantry owed its victory not to its own fortitude (the riders did not gallop to it), but to the lack of cavalry reconnaissance among the French. At Azincourt, the French cavalry vanguard, being cut off from its main forces, attacked the British army deployed in battle formation, and this army outnumbered the entire French, and not only its vanguard.

The list of victories of the united infantry over the knightly cavalry can be supplemented by two more: the battle of Legnano (1176) and on the ice of Lake Peipsi (1242). They had two things in common with each other. Both near Milan and on the border with Russia, the German knights, having exhausted their first blow, no longer resumed the classic cavalry attack "from a run", as they were drawn into an exhausting swordfight with the infantry at Legnano, storming the Milanese camp surrounded by a moat on foot, and Crow's Stone has no place to turn around and rebuild for a new attack. The second common feature of the two battles is a cavalry attack on the flank of the Teutons who have upset their ranks. Under Legnano, the Milanese knights, who managed to rebuild after the initial defeat, inflicted it, and with a nominal "running start", absolutely necessary for gaining the proper power. The battle on Lake Peipsi was also completed with an attack by the princely squad, saved for the decisive hour on a wooded shore under the shade of spreading spruce branches.

This is all true. However, the above exceptions confirm the general rule: throughout the Middle Ages, it was the knightly cavalry that remained the "queen" on the battlefields. Analysis of each of the cases when she could not maintain her royal dignity in clashes with the infantry shows quite clearly: she was entrusted with solving unsolvable combat missions - such as galloping through a swamp "like on dry land" or taking off without losing the initial speed to the top steep hill like a bird. - Approx. per.

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7 Jugglers are wandering comedians, singers and musicians in medieval France (X-XIII centuries). They performed chivalrous epic poems (gestures) in recitative or chanting, and therefore were welcome guests both in the knight's castle and at the court of the prince. Not a single holiday in high society was complete without them. - Approx. per.

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8 The above is a prosaic translation of the rhymed text. - Approx. per.

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9 Interdict - a temporary prohibition (without excommunication) of a pope or a bishop to perform divine services and religious rites on the territory subjected to punishment (baptism of newborns, church weddings, funeral services for the dead, etc.). - Approx. per.

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10 "Schism" (literally, "schism"), which finally divided the Ecumenical Church into Western (Catholic) and Eastern (Orthodox) in 1054, was the result of both the centuries-old separatist policy of the Roman Church, and the clearly provocative actions of the papacy directly in the year of the schism ... Nevertheless, the West has always placed the responsibility for "schism" on Constantinople and stuck a slanderous label of "schismatics" on the Orthodox. It is very characteristic of the current Western mentality that even such an objective researcher as Jean Florey, at the first meeting with the odious term, did not consider it necessary to put it in quotation marks. - Approx. per.

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11 In classical Latin, the word “ ordo"(Plural ordines) had the following basic meanings: 1) row; 2) military line, formation, line; 3) estate, rank, social structure; 4) order; ex ordine- in order, in turn. - Approx. per.

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12 Binary - two-term. - Approx. per.

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13 We are talking, of course, about the "Consolation of Philosophy" by the last Roman philosopher and politician Anicius Manlius Boethius (480-524). Boethius, author of treatises on logic, mathematics and theology and court adviser to the Ostrogothic king Theodoric in Ravenna, was accused of treasonous relations with the Byzantine emperor, sentenced to death, and imprisoned until the execution of the sentence.

Expecting execution every day, he wrote his last work, the title of which clearly enough reveals its content. The significance of "Consolation with Philosophy" went far beyond the personal tragic fate of its author: the medieval intellectual elite of the West saw in the book the testament and greetings of Ancient Rome to the new world that replaced it. The manuscript, taken out by the jailers from the place of execution, was carefully copied, reproduced in dozens of copies, and read in the original language, wherever a handful of learned monks could gather. Then they began to translate. - Approx. per.

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14 Pataria (it. pataria, from the name of the junk market in Milan) - a popular movement in Milan and a number of neighboring cities against the clergy and urban nobility for the church (Cluny) reform in the second half of the 11th century. It was suppressed, but still played an important role in the success of the Cluny reform, and in the formation of city-republics in northern Italy. - Approx. per.

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15 Russian reading of such French names as Hue, Hugues and others like them, in the English way, it risks surprising the reader, who, of course, knows that the French "ash" ( h), as opposed to English "h" ( h), in no way like the Russian "ha" is pronounced. But the trouble is that in Russian phonetics and in the Russian alphabet there are no sounds and letters that would be able to convey, at least with a very large "tolerance", the French letter combination " hu”, And in the fact that in a literary text there is no possibility of resorting to signs of international phonetic transcription. English name Hue pronounced in Russian as "Hugh" is correct enough, but exactly the same spelling in French is not pronounced in any way. The author of Les Miserables and Notre Dame de Paris was christened in Russian as Hugo in the 19th century, and this was terrible: not a single Frenchman would ever recognize his famous writer under this Russified name. Of two or more evils, I have chosen, it seems to me, the least. - Approx. per.

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16 Reitars - here: German cavalry mercenaries who took an active part in the Religious Wars in France in the 16th century. Differed, even from other mercenaries, unbridled cruelty and unquenchable greed. - Approx. per.

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17 Perceval or Parzival- a literary character, better known to the Russian public by his second, German name, thanks mainly to Wagner's opera. Wagner was inspired, as you know, by the eponymous poetic novel (c. 1198–1210) by Wolfram von Eschenbach, who creatively rethought the novel by Chrétien de Troyes, which was then highly read by Western chivalry. - Approx. per.

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18 Bretons are the indigenous inhabitants of Brittany, which is now part of France, but which at the same time is much older than France. It was called "Brittany", while still a part of Celtic Gaul, that is, when nothing was heard about the Franks, who would give their name to France. It is no coincidence that in modern French "Brittany" and "Britain" are denoted by the same word Brétagne: Peninsula Brittany, apparently, became a springboard for the Celtic colonization of the British Isles, in any case, a single ethnic array for many centuries (no less than half a millennium) stretched from Gaul through Brittany to the British Isles. In this sense ancient the British (before the landing of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, who arrived from the shores of Schleswig and Jutland), perhaps, it is permissible to designate as "Bretons". The same term applied to the remnants of the Celtic population in England in the 12th century is hardly acceptable, and the current British, who are considered as such after the union of England with Scotland at the beginning of the 17th century, cannot be called “Bretons”. - Approx. per.

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19 One word cannot convey in Russian the meaning of the term "courtesy" or "courtesy", so I have to turn, firstly, to the transcription and, secondly, to the explanation of the authoritative "New French-Russian Dictionary" V. G. Gaka and K. A. Ganshina: courtoisie- courtesy, courtesy, politeness, gallantry. - Approx. per.

Id = "n_20">

20 Below are only works covering the problem of chivalry in general. The reader will find literature on particular issues in the notes to this book.

Arnold W. German Knighthood, 1050-1300. Oxford, 1985.

Barber R. The Knight and Chivalry. Woodbridge, 1995.

Barbero A. L "Aristocrazia nella società francese del medioevo. Bologna, 1987.

Bumke Joachim. The Concept of Knighthood in the Middle Ages, trad. Jackson W. T. H. et E. New York, 1982.

Cardini F. Alle radici délia cavalleria medievale. Firenze, 1982.

Chênerie M. L. Le Chevalier errant dans les romans arthuriens en vers des XII e et XIII e siècles. Genève, 1986.

Chickering H. et Seiler Th. H. The study of chivalry. Kalamazoo, Michigan, 1988.

Cohen G. Histoire de la chevalerie en France au Moyen Age. Paris, 1949.

Contamine P. La Noblesse au royaume de France, de Philippe le Bel à Louis XII. Paris, 1997.

Coss P. R. The Knight in Medieval England 1000-1400. Stroud, 1993.

Duby G. Les Trois Ordres ou l "imaginaire du féodalisme. Paris, 1978.

Duby G. Guillaume le Maréchal ou le meilleur chevalier du monde. Paris, 1984.

Flori J. L "Idéologie du glaive. Préhistoire de la chevalerie. Genève, 1983.

Flori J. L "Essor de la chevalerie, XI e -XII e siècle. Genève, 1986.

Flori J. La Chevalerie en France au Moyen Age. Paris, 1995.

Flori J. Croisade et chevalerie. Louvain-La Neuve, 1998.

Gautier L. La Chevalerie. Paris, 1884.

Jackson W. T. N. Chivalry in XIIth century Germany. Cambridge, 1994.

Keen M. Chivalry. London, 1984.

Parisse M. Noblesse et chevalerie en Lorraine médiévale. Nancy, 1982.

Reuter H. G. Die Lehre vom Ritterstand. Köln, 1975 (2 e éd.).

Ritter J. P. Ministérialité et chevalerie. Lausanne, 1955.

Stanesco M. Jeux d "errance du chevalier médiéval. Leiden, 1988.

Winter J. M., van. Rittertum, Idéal und Wirklichkeit. Bussum, 1969.

Literature in Russian

Barber M. Templar process. M., 1998.

Barg M.A. Studies on the history of English feudalism in the XI-XIII centuries. M., 1962.

Bessmertny Yu. L. Life and death in the Middle Ages. M., 1991.

Bitsilli P.M. Elements of medieval culture. SPb., 1995.

Block M. Feudal society // Blok M. Apology of history or the craft of a historian. M., 1986.

Theology in the culture of the Middle Ages. Kiev, 1992.

Boytsov M.A. German Emperor of the XIV century: tools for the implementation of power // Power and political culture in medieval Europe. M., 1992.

Bordonov J. The daily life of the Knights Templar in the 13th century. M., 2004.

Brunel-Lobrichon J., Duhamel-Amado C. Everyday life during the 12th – 13th century troubadours. M., 2003.

V.P. Budanova The barbaric world of the era of the Great Nations Migration. M., 2000.

The relationship of social relations and ideology in medieval Europe. M., 1983.

Power and Political Culture in Medieval Europe. M., 1992.Part 1.

Volkova Z.N. Epic of France. History and language of French epic legends. M., 1984.

Gurevich A. Ya. Culture and society of medieval Europe through the eyes of contemporaries. M., 1989.

Gurevich A. Ya. The Medieval World: The Culture of the Silent Majority. M., 1990.

Duby J. Europe in the Middle Ages. Smolensk, 1994.

Egorov D. Ya. Crusades. M., 1914-1915. T. 1-2.

Zaborov M.A. Crusades. M., 1956.

Zaborov M.A. Crusaders in the East. M., 1980.

Ivanov K. The many-sided Middle Ages. M., 1996.

History of Europe. M., 1992.Vol. 2.

Cardini F. The origins of medieval chivalry. M., 1987.

A. V. Kartashov Ecumenical Councils. M., 1998.

Kolesnitsky N.F. Feudal state of the 5th – 15th centuries. M., 1967.

Konrad N.K. West and East. M., 1966.

Contamine F. War in the Middle Ages. SPb., 2001.

Korsunsky A.R., Gunther R. Decline and fall of the Western Roman Empire and the emergence of the Germanic kingdoms (until the middle of the 6th century). M., 1984.

Le Goff J. The medieval world of the imaginary. M., 2001.

Le Goff J. Civilization of the Medieval West. M., 1992.

A.P. Levandovsky Charlemagne: Through the Empire to Europe. M., 1995.

Laurent T. The Carolingian heritage of the 9th – 10th centuries M., 1993.

A.D. Lyublinskaya The structure of estate representation in medieval France // Questions of history. 1972. No. 1.

Meletinsky E. M. Medieval novel. Origin and classic forms. M., 1983.

Melik-Gaikazova H. N. French chroniclers of the XIV century as historians of their time. M., 1970.

Mikhailov A.D. French knightly romance. M., 1970.

Moulin L. Daily life of medieval monks in Western Europe. X-XV centuries. M., 2002.

Matthews J. Grail tradition. M., 1997.

Communities and people in the medieval world. M .; Saratov, 1992.

Millennium Experience. The Middle Ages and the Renaissance: Life, Morals, Ideals. M., 1996.

Pavlenko V.G., Nikolaev R.V. European chivalry. Kemerovo, 1998.

Pasturo M. Everyday life in France and England during the time of the Knights of the Round Table. M., 2001.

Ponyon E. Daily life in Europe in the thousandth year. M., 1999.

Roy J. History of chivalry. M, 1996.

Wallace-Headryll J.M. Barbaric West. Early Middle Ages 400–1000. SPb, 2002.

Flory J. The ideology of the sword. Prehistory of chivalry. SPb, 1999.

Fustel de Coulanges. The history of the social structure of ancient France. M, 1901-1916. T. 1-6.

Elite and ethnos of the Middle Ages. M, 1995.

Illustrations

Translator's Notes

Id = "n_1">

1 Deontology is a section of ethics that deals with the problems of debt and due. - Approx. per.

Work description

I wanted to take a closer look at the life of those times. How did people live? What was their morality? What were you guided by in life? What day-to-day worries occupied their minds? How strongly do the interests of people of the present and that time contrast? As now there were big cities, squares, but since then a lot has changed: if earlier on the square one could hear
the creak of wheels, the clatter of hooves, the clatter of wooden shoes, the shouts of peddlers, the rumble and clink of craft workshops, but now this has been replaced by the frantic pace of city streets, industrial factories. How have people changed?

1.Introduction ……………………………………………………………………… 3
2. Brightness and acuity of life …………………………………………………… .4
3. Chivalry …………………………………………………………………. 7
4. The significance of the cathedral in the medieval city ………………………………… 10
5. Citizen and time ……………………………………………………… ..14
6.Crime of the Middle Ages …………………………………………… ..16
7. The role of the church ……………………………………………………………… ..17
7.1 The role of the church in education …………………………………………… .18
8. Conclusion ……………………………………………………………… ..19
List of used literature …………………………………………… ..20

Artist E. Blair-Leighton

What they came up with in the Middle Ages and what they use to this day:
Soap;
Whitening masks.
Francois Villon
"Ballad of Seniors of Old Times"
Tell me where they are, what country
Thais and Flora sweet shadows?
And where is the end in fire
Holy Virgin - Lorraine's Daughter?
Where is the nymph Echo, whose melody is spring
Sometimes a quiet coast disturbed the rivers,
Whose beauty was the most perfect?

Where are Bertha and Alice - where is one?
My painful songs are about them.
Where is the lady who wept in silence
What did Buridana drown in the Seine?
Where are they like light foam?
Where is Eloise, for what age
Graduated from Pierre under the abdication scheme?
But where is he - where is last year's snow?
Will I see Queen Blanche in my dreams?
Equal to the old siren in songs,
That she sang on the sea wave
In what land is it - what captivity?
Artist E. Blair-Leighton
I will also ask about sweet Elena.
O virgin virgin, who stopped their flowering?
And where are they, mistresses of visions?
But where is he - where is last year's snow?

Famous beauties of the Middle Ages
Beautiful Rosamund- The beauty Rosamund Clifford, lover of the English king Henry II. Fearing the jealousy of his wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine, the king took Rosamund to a secluded castle and visited her there. But the queen found a way to poison her husband's mistress. As punishment, Henry excommunicated his wife from the marital bed and sent into exile, and Eleanor turned her sons against him, which led to a long civil strife in the country.
Artist J. Waterhouse

Queen Jeanne of Navarre- the wife of the French king Philip the Fair. She was famous for her beautiful figure, as well as for her exorbitant voluptuousness.

To satisfy lust, she lured men to the Nelsk Tower, and to keep secrets, after pleasures, she killed her lovers and dumped their bodies into the Seine.
Queen Isabella French Wolf- daughter of the French king Philip the Fair, wife of the English king Edward II. She was famous for her golden hair, dazzling whiteness of her skin, intelligence, education and ability to maintain external equanimity.

She received the nickname when she rebelled against her husband and brutally killed him in order to enthrone her son, who became the English king Edward III and, at the instigation of his mother, claimed the rights to the French throne, as a result of which the Hundred Years War began.
Agnes Sorel- the beloved of the French king Charles VII, became famous for the angelic perfection of the face and the magnificent shape of the chest, for the demonstration of which she introduced into fashion a bold neckline, captured in many paintings of that time.
Artist Jean_Fouquet

Agnes was reproached for the excessive abuse of luxury: she collected jewelry and incense, loved oriental silk and Russian furs (even then they were popular in Europe). Her sybarism looked especially outrageous against the background of general poverty: the country was ravaged by a hundred years of war, peasant riots and civil strife. But Agnes loved the king sincerely. When she was nine months pregnant, she learned that an attempt was being made on Charles VII, and went to warn him. The carriages at that time were unsprung, Agnes was greatly shaken, she began to give birth, but she endured torment and continued to drive horses - to save her beloved.
Artist J. Waterhouse

Agnes Sorel died of childbirth in the literal sense of the hands of Charles VII, but managed to warn him about the impending assassination attempt.