Results of the Livonian. "The Livonian War, its political meaning and consequences

16.10.2019

Characteristics of the hero from the comedy "Minor" D

Pyotr Andreevich Grinev, the main character of the story

The image and characteristics of svidrigailov in the novel crime and punishment dostoevsky composition

The image and characteristics of Mitrofanushka in Fonvizin's "The Minor": the description of Mitrofan Prostakov

After the conquest of Kazan, Russia turned its gaze to the Baltic and put forward plans to take Livonia. There were two main reasons for the Livonian War: the right to trade freely in the Baltic, and for the opponents, the issue of not admitting Russia to the number of European states was decided. The order and the German merchants hindered the growth of Russian trade. Therefore, for Russia, the main goal of the Livonian War was to conquer the outlet to the Baltic Sea. The struggle for supremacy at sea was between Lithuania and Poland, Sweden, Denmark and Russia.

The reason for the start of the war was the failure of the Livonian Order to pay tribute, which the Yuryevsky (or Derpt) bishopric undertook to pay under the peace treaty of 1554.

In 1558, Russian troops invaded Livonia.

At the first stage of the war (1558-1561), several cities and castles were taken, including such significant ones as Narva, Dorpat, Yuriev.

Instead of continuing the successfully launched offensive, the Moscow government granted the Order a truce and at the same time equipped an expedition against the Crimea. Taking advantage of the respite, the Livonian knights gathered military forces and defeated the Russian troops a month before the end of the armistice.

Russia did not achieve results in the war against the Crimean Khanate and missed opportunities for victory in Livonia. In 1561, Master Kettler signed an agreement, according to which the Order passed under the protectorate of Lithuania and Poland.

Moscow made peace with Crimea and concentrated all its forces in Livonia. But now, instead of one weak order, one had to deal with several strong claimants to his inheritance. If at first it was possible to reject the war with Sweden and Denmark, then the fight against the main heir of the Livonian Order, i.e. with the Polish-Lithuanian king was inevitable.

The second stage of the war (1562-1578) for Russia passed with varying success.

The highest achievement of Russia in the Livonian War was the capture of Polotsk in February 1563, followed by military setbacks and fruitless negotiations. The Crimean Khan refused the alliance with Moscow.

In 1566, Lithuanian ambassadors arrived in Moscow with a proposal for an armistice and so that Polotsk and part of Livonia would remain behind Moscow. Ivan the Terrible demanded the whole of Livonia. Such demands were rejected, and the Lithuanian king Sigismund August renewed the war with Russia.

In 1568, Sweden terminated its earlier alliance with Russia. England refused to sign the union treaty developed by Russian diplomats. In 1569, Poland and Lithuania united into a single state - the Rzeczpospolita. Russia had to continue the Livonian War without allies in the most unfavorable conditions.

However, both Rzeczpospolita and Russia equally needed peace, so both countries signed a three-year truce in 1570.

At this time, Russia was conducting military operations with the Swedes, resorting to the help of Denmark. Ivan the Terrible decided to create a vassal Livonian kingdom from the conquered lands, on the throne of which it was promised to place the Danish prince Magnus, who was married to the royal niece. He tried to expel the Swedes from Revel (Estonia) at the beginning of 1577, but the siege was unsuccessful. Then Sweden made peace with Denmark.

After the death of Sigismund Augustus in 1572, a period of kinglessness began in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In the struggle of claimants for the throne, the Transylvanian prince Stefan Batory won the victory in 1576. He created an anti-Russian alliance and gathered a sizeable army.

The third stage of the Livonian War (1679-1583) began with the invasion of Russia by the Polish king Stephen Batory. At the same time, Russia had to fight with Sweden. For the first time in the entire Livonian War, Russia's opponents actually united their military efforts.

In August 1579, Batory's army conquered Polotsk, and a year later Velikiye Luki and other cities. In an attempt to take Pskov, Batory suffered the largest setback in the war with Russia. Meanwhile, hostilities continued in Livonia and Estonia, where the Swedes took from the Russians the cities of Padis, Vesenberg, and Kexholm in Karelia, and on September 9, 1581, Sweden captured Narva, then Ivangorod, Yam, Koporye fell.

With the loss of Narva, the continuation of the struggle for Livonia lost its meaning for Grozny.

Realizing the impossibility of waging war with two opponents at once, the tsar began negotiations with Batory about an armistice in order to concentrate all his forces on the reconquest of Narva. But the plans for an attack on Narva remained unfulfilled.

The result of the Livonian War was the conclusion of two treaties, disadvantageous for Russia.

On January 15, 1582, the Yam Zapolsky treaty on a 10-year armistice was signed. Russia ceded to Poland all its possessions in Livonia, and Batory returned to Russia the fortresses and cities he had conquered, but retained Polotsk.

In August 1583, Russia and Sweden signed the Plyussky armistice agreement for three years. The Swedes held onto all the captured Russian cities. Russia has preserved a section of the coast of the Gulf of Finland with the mouth of the Neva.

The end of the Livonian War did not give Russia access to the Baltic Sea. This was very important for Russia, but nevertheless, the main strategic task of the Livonian War for Ivan IV was different. The annexation of Livonia was necessary to stop the centuries-old "onslaught to the east" from the Vatican for the enslavement of Russia.

The reasons for the defeat in the severe 25-year Livonian War were the economic weakness of Russia, its internal difficulties, the backwardness of the Russians in the art of war in comparison with Western Europeans. Political shortsightedness, ignorance of Ivan the Terrible about his rivals, his desire for quick results at any cost could not but lead to a major international conflict.

The consequence of the Livonian War was the extremely difficult position of Russia, the country was devastated.

After the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates were annexed to the Russian state, the threat of invasion from the east and southeast was eliminated. Ivan the Terrible faces new tasks - to return the Russian lands, once captured by the Livonian Order, Lithuania and Sweden.

In general, formal reasons were found for the start of the war. The real reasons were the geopolitical need for Russia to gain access to the Baltic Sea, as the most convenient for direct ties with the centers of European civilizations, as well as the desire to take an active part in the division of the territory of the Livonian Order, the progressive disintegration of which was becoming obvious, but which, not wanting strengthening of Russia, hindered its external contacts. For example, the Livonian authorities did not allow more than a hundred specialists from Europe invited by Ivan IV to pass through their lands. Some of them were imprisoned and executed.

The formal reason for the start of the Livonian War was the question of the "Yuryev tribute". According to the agreement of 1503, an annual tribute was to be paid for him and the adjacent territory, which, however, was not done. In addition, the Order entered into a military alliance with the Lithuanian-Polish king in 1557.

The stages of the war.

First step. In January 1558, Ivan the Terrible moved his troops to Livonia. The beginning of the war brought him victories: Narva and Yuryev were taken. In the summer and autumn of 1558 and at the beginning of 1559, Russian troops passed all of Livonia (up to Reval and Riga) and advanced in Courland to the borders of East Prussia and Lithuania. However, in 1559, under the influence of political figures grouped around A.F. Adashev, who hindered the expansion of the scope of the military conflict, Ivan the Terrible was forced to conclude an armistice. In March 1559, it was concluded for a period of six months.

The feudal lords took advantage of the truce to conclude an agreement with the Polish king Sigismund II August in 1559, according to which the order, lands and possessions of the Riga archbishop passed under the protectorate of the Polish crown. In an atmosphere of acute political differences in the leadership of the Livonian Order, its master V. Furstenberg was removed and G. Kettler became the new master, keeping a pro-Polish orientation. In the same year, Denmark took possession of the island of Ezel (Saaremaa).

The hostilities that began in 1560 brought new defeats to the Order: the large fortresses of Marienburg and Fellin were taken, the Order's army blocking the path to Viljandi was defeated near Ermes, and the Master of the Order of Furstenberg himself was taken prisoner. The success of the Russian army was facilitated by the peasant uprisings that broke out in the country against the German feudal lords. The result of the company in 1560 was the actual defeat of the Livonian Order as a state. The German feudal lords of Northern Estonia passed into Swedish citizenship. According to the Treaty of Vilna in 1561, the possessions of the Livonian Order came under the rule of Poland, Denmark and Sweden, and his last master, Kettler, received only Courland, and even then it was dependent on Poland. Thus, instead of a weak Livonia, Russia now had three strong opponents.

Second phase. While Sweden and Denmark were at war with each other, Ivan IV led successful operations against Sigismund II Augustus. In 1563, the Russian army took Plock, a fortress that opened the way to the capital of Lithuania Vilno and to Riga. But already at the beginning of 1564, the Russians suffered a series of defeats on the Ulla River and near Orsha; in the same year, a boyar and a major military leader, Prince A.M. Kurbsky.

Tsar Ivan the Terrible responded to military failures and escapes to Lithuania with repressions against the boyars. In 1565 the oprichnina was introduced. Ivan IV tried to restore the Livonian Order, but under the protectorate of Russia, and negotiated with Poland. In 1566, the Lithuanian embassy arrived in Moscow, proposing to partition Livonia on the basis of the situation that existed at that time. The Zemsky Sobor convened at this time supported the intention of the government of Ivan the Terrible to wage a struggle in the Baltic states up to the capture of Riga: "Our sovereign of those Livonian cities that the king took in guardianship should be unsuitable for the sovereign, and it is fitting for the sovereign to stand for those cities." The council's decision also stressed that abandoning Livonia would hurt trade interests.

Stage three. The Union of Lublin had serious consequences, which in 1569 united the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into one state - the Republic of Both Nations. A difficult situation developed in the north of Russia, where relations with Sweden were aggravated again, and in the south (the campaign of the Turkish army near Astrakhan in 1569 and the war with the Crimea, during which the army of Devlet I Giray burned Moscow in 1571 and ruined the southern Russian lands). However, the offensive in the Republic of both peoples of a long "rootlessness", the creation in Livonia of the vassal "kingdom" of Magnus, which at first had an attractive force in the eyes of the population of Livonia, again allowed to tip the scales in favor of Russia. In 1572, the army of Devlet-Giray was destroyed and the threat of large raids by the Crimean Tatars was eliminated (Battle of Molodi). In 1573 the Russians took the Weissenstein (Paide) fortress by storm. In the spring, Moscow troops under the command of Prince Mstislavsky (16,000) met near the castle of Lode in western Estonia with two thousand Swedish troops. Despite the overwhelming numerical advantage, the Russian troops suffered a crushing defeat. They had to abandon all their guns, banners and train.

In 1575, the Sage fortress surrendered to the army of Magnus, and Pernov to the Russians. After the 1576 campaign, Russia captured the entire coast, except for Riga and Kolyvan.

However, the unfavorable international situation, the distribution of land in the Baltics to the Russian nobles, which alienated the local peasant population from Russia, and serious internal difficulties had a negative impact on the further course of the war for Russia.

Stage four. In 1575 the Rzecz Pospolita ended the period of "rootlessness" (1572-1575). Stephen Bathory was elected king. Stefan Batory, Prince of Semigrad, was supported by the Turkish Sultan Murad III. After the flight of King Heinrich of Valois from Poland in 1574, the sultan sent the Polish masters a letter demanding that the Poles not choose the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Maximilian II, but choose one of the Polish nobles, for example, Jan Kostka, or, if the king from others powers, then Batory or the Swedish prince Sigismund Vazu. Ivan the Terrible in his letter to Stephen Bathory more than once hinted that he was a vassal of the Turkish Sultan, which prompted a sharp response from Bathory: “as if you dare to remember so often the madness, you, who interfered with your blood with us, whose milk was mare's milk, they licked what was left on the manes of the Tatar scales ... ". The election of Stefan Batory as king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth meant the renewal of the war with Poland. However, as early as 1577, Russian troops occupied almost all of Livonia, except for Riga and Reval, which was besieged in 1576-1577. But this year was the last year of Russia's success in the Livonian War.

In 1579, Batory began a war against Russia. In 1579, Sweden resumed hostilities, and Batory returned Polotsk and took Velikie Luki, and in 1581 besieged Pskov, intending, if successful, to go to Novgorod the Great and Moscow. The Pskovites swore "for the city of Pskov, they were fighting with Lithuania to death without any cunning." They kept their oath, fighting off 31 attacks. After five months of unsuccessful attempts, the Poles were forced to lift the siege of Pskov. The heroic defense of Pskov in 1581-1582 the garrison and the population of the city determined a more favorable outcome of the Livonian War for Russia: the failure at Pskov forced Stefan Batory to agree to peace negotiations.

Taking advantage of the fact that Batory actually cut off Livonia from Russia, the Swedish commander Baron Pontus De la Gardie undertook an operation to destroy isolated Russian garrisons in Livonia. By the end of 1581, the Swedes, crossing the frozen Gulf of Finland on the ice, captured the entire coast of Northern Estonia, Narva, Vesenberg (Rakovor, Rakvere), and then moved to Riga, taking Haaps-lu, Pärnu, and then the entire South (Russian ) Estonia - Fellin (Viljandi), Dorpat (Tartu). In total, Swedish troops in a relatively short period captured 9 cities in Livonia and 4 in Novgorod land, nullifying all the long-term conquests of the Russian state in the Baltic. In Ingermanlandia Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye were taken, and Korela in Ladoga.

Results and consequences of the war.

In January 1582, a ten-year truce with the Commonwealth was concluded in Yama-Zapolsky (not far from Pskov). Under this agreement, Russia renounced Livonia and the Belarusian lands, but some border Russian lands captured by the Polish king during the hostilities were returned to it.

The defeat of the Russian troops in the simultaneously ongoing war with Poland, where the tsar was faced with the need to decide even on the concession of Pskov if the city was taken by storm, forced Ivan IV and his diplomats to negotiate with Sweden on the conclusion of the Peace of Plus, humiliating for the Russian state. ... Negotiations in Plus took place from May to August 1583. Under this agreement:

1. The Russian state was deprived of all its acquisitions in Livonia. Only a narrow section of the outlet to the Baltic Sea in the Gulf of Finland remained behind it.
2. Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye passed to the Swedes.
3. Also, the Kexholm fortress in Karelia, along with a vast county and the coast of Lake Ladoga, went to the Swedes.
4. The Russian state was cut off from the sea, devastated and devastated. Russia has lost a significant part of its territory.

Thus, the Livonian War had very grave consequences for the Russian state, and the defeat in it strongly affected its further development. However, one can agree with N.M. Karamzin, who noted that the Livonian War was "unfortunate, but not inglorious for Russia."

ü The Russian state was deprived of all its acquisitions in Livonia. Behind it there was only a narrow section of the outlet to the Baltic Sea in the Gulf of Finland from the Strelka River to the Sestra River (31.5 km).

ü The cities of Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye passed to the Swedes along with Narva (Rugodiv).

ü In Karelia, the Keksholm (Korela) fortress departed to the Swedes along with a vast district and the coast of Lake Ladoga.

The Russian state was again cut off from the sea. The country was devastated, the central and northwestern regions were depopulated. Russia has lost a significant part of its territory.

Chapter 3. Domestic historians about the Livonian War

Domestic historiography reflects the problems of society at critical periods in the development of our country, which is accompanied by the formation of a new, modern society, then, according to the time, the views of historians on certain historical events also change. The views of modern historians on the Livonian War are practically unanimous and do not cause much disagreement. The dominant views of Tatishchev, Karamzin, Pogodin about the Livonian War in the 19th century are now perceived as archaic. In the works of N.I. Kostomarova, S.M. Solovyova, V.O. Klyuchevsky reveals a new vision of the problem.

Livonian War (1558-1583). Causes. Move. Outcomes

At the beginning of the twentieth century, another change in the social system took place. During this transitional period, outstanding historians - representatives of different historical schools - came to Russian historical science: statesman S.F. Platonov, creator of the "proletarian-internationalist" school M.N. Pokrovsky, a very original philosopher R.Yu. Vipper, who explained the events of the Livonian War from their own points of view. During the Soviet period, historical schools successively replaced each other: the "Pokrovsky school" in the mid-1930s. The twentieth century was replaced by the “patriotic school”, which was replaced by the “new Soviet historical school” (from the late 1950s of the twentieth century), among the adherents of which one can mention A.A. Zimin, V.B. Kobrin, R.G. Skrynnikov.

N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826) assessed the Livonian War as a whole as "ill-fated, but not inglorious for Russia." The historian places the responsibility for the defeat in the war on the tsar, whom he accuses of "cowardice" and "confusion of the spirit."

According to N.I. Kostomarov (1817-1885) in 1558, before the start of the Livonian War, before Ivan IV, there was an alternative - either "to do away with the Crimea" or "to seize Livonia." The historian explains Ivan IV's decision, contrary to common sense, to fight on two fronts by the “discord” between his advisers. In his writings, Kostomarov writes that the Livonian War drained the strength and labor of the Russian people. The historian explains the failure of the Russian troops in the confrontation with the Swedes and Poles by the complete demoralization of the domestic armed forces as a result of the oprichnina actions. According to Kostomarov, as a result of the peace with Poland and the truce with Sweden, "the western borders of the state were shrinking, the fruits of long-term efforts were lost."

The Livonian War, which began in 1559, S.M. Soloviev (1820-1879) explains the need for Russia to "assimilate the fruits of European civilization", the carriers of which were allegedly not allowed to Russia by the Livonians who owned the main Baltic ports. The loss by Ivan IV of seemingly conquered Livonia was the result of simultaneous actions against the Russian troops of the Poles and Swedes, as well as the result of the superiority of the regular (mercenary) army and European military art over the Russian noble militia.

According to S.F. Platonov (1860-1933), Russia was dragged into the Livonian War. The historian believes that Russia could not avoid what was "happening on its western borders", which "exploited and oppressed it (unfavorable terms of trade)." The defeat of the troops of Ivan IV at the last stage of the Livonian War is explained by the fact that then there were "signs of a clear depletion of funds for the fight." The historian also notes, referring to the economic crisis that befell the Russian state, that Stefan Batory "beat the already lying enemy, not defeated by him, but lost his strength before fighting him."

M.N. Pokrovsky (1868-1932) claims that the Livonian War was allegedly started by Ivan IV on the recommendation of some advisers - without any doubt, who left the ranks of the "army". The historian notes both "a very favorable moment" for the invasion, and the absence of "almost any formal reason" for this. Pokrovsky explains the intervention of the Swedes and Poles in the war by the fact that they could not allow the transfer of "the entire southeastern coast of the Baltic" with trade ports to Russian rule. Pokrovsky considers the main defeats of the Livonian War to be the unsuccessful sieges of Reval and the loss of Narva and Ivangorod. He also notes the great influence on the outcome of the war of the Crimean invasion of 1571.

According to R.Yu. Vipper (1859-1954), the Livonian War was being prepared long before 1558 by the leaders of the Chosen Rada and could have been won in the event of an earlier intervention by Russia. The historian considers the battles for the Eastern Baltic to be the largest of all wars fought by Russia, as well as "the most important event in European history." Vipper explains the defeat of Russia by the fact that by the end of the war "the military structure of Russia" was in decay, and "the ingenuity, flexibility and adaptability of Grozny were over."

A.A. Zimin (1920-1980) connects the decision of the Moscow government "to raise the issue of the annexation of the Baltic states" with "the strengthening of the Russian state in the 16th century." Among the motives that prompted this decision, he singles out the need for Russia's access to the Baltic Sea to expand cultural and economic ties with Europe. Thus, the Russian merchants were interested in the war; the nobility hoped to acquire new lands. Zimin considers the involvement of "a number of major Western powers" in the Livonian War as the result of "the short-sighted policy of the Chosen Rada." With this, as well as with the ruin of the country, with the demoralization of service people, with the death of skilled military leaders during the years of the oprichnina, the historian connects the defeat of Russia in the war.

The beginning of the "war for Livonia" R.G. Skrynnikov connects it with the "first success" of Russia - the victory in the war with the Swedes (1554-1557), under the influence of which "plans to conquer Livonia and establish themselves in the Baltic states" were put forward. The historian points to the "special goals" of Russia in the war, the main of which was the creation of conditions for Russian trade. After all, the Livonian Order and German merchants hindered the commercial activities of the Muscovites, and Ivan IV's attempts to organize his own "refuge" at the mouth of the Narova failed. The defeat of the Russian troops at the last stage of the Livonian War, according to Skrynnikov, was the result of the entry into the war of the armed forces of Poland, led by Stefan Bathory. The historian notes that at that time there were not 300 thousand people in the army of Ivan IV, as previously stated, but only 35 thousand. In addition, the twenty-year war and the ruin of the country contributed to the weakening of the noble militia. Skrynnikov explains the conclusion by Ivan IV of the peace with the abandonment of the Livonian possessions in favor of the Commonwealth by the fact that Ivan IV wanted to focus on the war with the Swedes.

According to V. B. Kobrin (1930-1990) The Livonian War became unpromising for Russia, when, some time after the start of the conflict, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland became Moscow's opponents. The historian notes the key role of Adashev, who was one of the leaders of Russian foreign policy, in unleashing the Livonian War. The conditions of the Russian-Polish armistice, concluded in 1582, Kobrin considers not humiliating, but rather difficult for Russia. In this regard, he notes that the goal of the war was not achieved - "the reunification of the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands that were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the annexation of the Baltic states." The historian considers the terms of the truce with Sweden even more difficult, since a significant part of the coast of the Gulf of Finland, which was part of the Novgorod land, was “lost”.

Conclusion

Thus:

1. The aim of the Livonian War was to give Russia access to the Baltic Sea in order to break the blockade from Livonia, the Polish-Lithuanian state and Sweden and establish direct communication with European countries.

2. The immediate reason for the start of the Livonian War was the question of the "Yuryev's tribute".

3. The beginning of the war (1558) brought victories to Ivan the Terrible: Narva and Yuryev were taken. The hostilities that began in 1560 brought new defeats to the Order: the large fortresses of Marienburg and Fellin were taken, the Order's army blocking the path to Viljandi was defeated near Ermes, and the Master of the Order of Furstenberg himself was taken prisoner. The success of the Russian army was facilitated by the peasant uprisings that broke out in the country against the German feudal lords. The result of the company in 1560 was the actual defeat of the Livonian Order as a state.

4. Since 1561, the Livonian War entered the second period, when Russia was forced to wage war with the Polish-Lithuanian state and Sweden.

5. Since Lithuania and Poland in 1570 could not quickly enough concentrate their forces against the Moscow state, since were exhausted by the war, then Ivan IV began in May 1570 to negotiate an armistice with Poland and Lithuania and at the same time create, neutralizing Poland, an anti-Swedish coalition, realizing his long-standing idea of forming a vassal state from Russia in the Baltic States. The Danish Duke Magnus in May 1570, upon his arrival in Moscow, was proclaimed "King of Livonian".

6. The Russian government undertook to provide the new state, based on the island of Ezel, with its military assistance and material resources, so that it could expand its territory at the expense of Swedish and Lithuanian-Polish possessions in Livonia.

7. The proclamation of the Livonian kingdom was supposed, according to the calculations of Ivan IV, to provide Russia with the support of the Livonian feudal lords, i.e. of all German chivalry and nobility in Estonia, Livonia and Courland, and therefore not only an alliance with Denmark (through Magnus), but, most importantly, an alliance and support of the Habsburg empire. With this new combination in Russian foreign policy, the tsar intended to create a vice from two fronts for the too aggressive and turbulent Poland, which had grown due to the inclusion of Lithuania. While Sweden and Denmark were at war with each other, Ivan IV led successful operations against Sigismund II Augustus. In 1563, the Russian army took Plock, a fortress that opened the way to the capital of Lithuania Vilno and to Riga. But already at the beginning of 1564, the Russians suffered a series of defeats on the Ulla River and near Orsha.

8. By 1577, in fact, in the hands of the Russians was the whole of Livonia to the north of the Western Dvina (Vidzeme), except for Riga, which, as a Hanseatic city, Ivan IV decided to spare. However, military successes did not lead to a victorious end to the Livonian War. The fact is that by this time Russia had lost the diplomatic support that it had at the beginning of the Swedish stage of the Livonian War. Firstly, in October 1576, Emperor Maximilian II died, and the hopes for the capture of Poland and its partition were not justified. Secondly, a new king came to power in Poland - Stefan Batory, the former prince of Semigradsky, one of the best generals of his time, who was a supporter of an active Polish-Swedish alliance against Russia. Thirdly, Denmark fell away completely as an ally and, finally, in 1578-1579. Stephen Bathory managed to persuade Duke Magnus to betray the king.

9.In 1579 Batory captured Polotsk and Velikiye Luki, in 1581 he laid siege to Pskov, and by the end of 1581 the Swedes had captured the entire coast of Northern Estonia, Narva, Vesenberg (Rakovor, Rakvere), Haapsa-lu, Pärnu and the entire Southern (Russian ) Estonia - Fellin (Viljandi), Dorpat (Tartu). In Ingermanlandia Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye were taken, and Korela in Ladoga.

10. In January 1582 in Yama - Zapolsky (not far from Pskov) a ten-year truce was concluded with the Commonwealth. Under this agreement, Russia renounced Livonia and the Belarusian lands, but some border Russian lands captured by the Polish king during the hostilities were returned to it.

11. The Plus Peace Treaty was concluded with Sweden. Under this agreement, the Russian state was deprived of all its acquisitions in Livonia. The cities of Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye passed to the Swedes along with Narva (Rugodiv). In Karelia, the Keksholm (Korela) fortress withdrew to the Swedes along with a vast county and the coast of Lake Ladoga.

12. As a result, the Russian state was cut off from the sea. The country was devastated, the central and northwestern regions were depopulated. Russia has lost a significant part of its territory.

List of used literature

1. Zimin A.A. History of the USSR from ancient times to the present day. - M., 1966.

2. Karamzin N.M. History of Russian Goverment. - Kaluga, 1993.

3. Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history course. - M. 1987.

4. Kobrin VB Ivan the Terrible. - M., 1989.

5. Platonov S.F. Ivan the Terrible (1530-1584). Wipper R.Yu. Ivan the Terrible / Comp. D.M. Kholodikhin. - M., 1998.

6. Skrynnikov R.G. Ivan the Terrible. - M., 1980.

7. Soloviev S.M. Compositions. History of Russia since ancient times. - M., 1989.

Read in the same book: Introduction | Chapter 1. Creation of Livonia | Military operations 1561 - 1577 | mybiblioteka.su - 2015-2018. (0.095 sec.)

The best that history can give us is the enthusiasm it generates.

The Livonian War lasted from 1558 to 1583. During the war, Ivan the Terrible sought to gain access to and seize the port cities of the Baltic Sea, which was to significantly improve the economic situation of Russia by improving trade. In this article, we will talk briefly about the Levonian War, as well as all its aspects.

The beginning of the Livonian War

The sixteenth century was a period of incessant wars. The Russian state sought to protect itself from its neighbors and return the lands that were previously part of Ancient Rus.

The wars were fought along several lines:

The eastern direction was marked by the conquest of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, as well as the beginning of the development of Siberia.
The southern direction of foreign policy represented the eternal struggle with the Crimean Khanate.
Western direction - the events of a long, difficult and very bloody Livonian War (1558-1583), which will be discussed.

Livonia is a region in the eastern Baltic. On the territory of modern Estonia and Latvia. In those days, there was a state created as a result of the crusader conquests. As a state entity, it was weak due to national contradictions (the Baltic people were placed in feudal dependence), religious schism (the Reformation penetrated there), and the struggle for power among the elite.

Livonian War Map

Reasons for the start of the Livonian War

Ivan 4 the Terrible started the Livonian War against the backdrop of the success of his foreign policy in other areas. The Russian prince-tsar strove to push the state borders back in order to gain access to the shipping areas and ports of the Baltic Sea. And the Livonian Order gave the Russian Tsar ideal reasons for starting the Livonian War:

Refusal to pay tribute. In 1503, the Livni Order and Russia signed a document, according to which the first were obliged to pay the city of Yuryev an annual tribute. In 1557, the Order single-handedly removed itself from this obligation.
Weakening of the external political influence of the Order against the background of national disagreements.

Speaking of the reason, emphasis should be placed on the fact that Livonia separated Russia from the sea, blocked trade. Large merchants and nobles who wanted to appropriate new lands were interested in the capture of Livonia. But the main reason is the ambitions of Ivan IV the Terrible. The victory was supposed to strengthen his influence, so he fought the war, regardless of the circumstances and the meager capabilities of the country for the sake of his own greatness.

The course of the war and the main events

The Livonian War was fought with long intervals and is historically divided into four stages.

The first stage of the war

At the first stage (1558-1561), hostilities were relatively successful for Russia. In the first months, the Russian army captured Dorpat and Narva and was close to capturing Riga and Revel. The Livonian Order was on the verge of death and asked for an armistice. Ivan the Terrible agreed to stop the war for 6 months, but this was a huge mistake. During this time, the Order passed under the protectorate of Lithuania and Poland, as a result of which Russia received not 1 weak, but 2 strong opponents.

The most dangerous adversary for Russia was Lithuania, which at that time could in some aspects surpass the Russian kingdom in its potential. Moreover, the Baltic peasants were unhappy with the newly arrived Russian landowners, the cruelty of the war, extortions and other disasters.

Second stage of the war

The second stage of the war (1562-1570) began when the new masters of the Livonian lands demanded that Ivan the Terrible withdraw his troops and abandon Livonia. In fact, it was proposed that the Livonian War end, and Russia was left with nothing as a result. After the Tsar's refusal to do this, the war for Russia finally turned into an adventure. The war with Lithuania lasted 2 years and was unsuccessful for the Russian Kingdom. The conflict could be continued only under the conditions of the oprichnina, especially since the boyars were against the continuation of hostilities. Earlier, for dissatisfaction with the Livonian War, in 1560 the tsar dispersed the "Chosen Rada".

It was at this stage of the war that Poland and Lithuania united into a single state - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was a strong power that everyone, without exception, had to reckon with.

Third stage of the war

The third stage (1570-1577) is the battles of local importance between Russia and Sweden for the territory of modern Estonia. They ended without any meaningful results for both sides. All battles were of a local nature and had no significant impact on the course of the war.

Fourth stage of the war

At the fourth stage of the Livonian War (1577-1583), Ivan IV again captures the entire Baltic region, but soon the tsar's luck turned away and the Russian troops were defeated. The new king of the united Poland and Lithuania (Rzecz Pospolita) Stefan Batory expelled Ivan the Terrible from the Baltic region, and even managed to capture a number of cities already on the territory of the Russian kingdom (Polotsk, Velikiye Luki, etc.).

Livonian War 1558-1583

The hostilities were accompanied by terrible bloodshed. Assistance to the Commonwealth since 1579 was provided by Sweden, which operated very successfully, capturing Ivangorod, Yam, Koporye.

The defense of Pskov saved Russia from complete defeat (from August 1581). During the 5 months of the siege, the garrison and residents of the city repulsed 31 assault attempts, weakening the army of Batory.

The end of the war and its results

The Yam-Zapolsk truce between the Russian kingdom and the Commonwealth of 1582 put an end to a long and unnecessary war. Russia abandoned Livonia. The coast of the Gulf of Finland was lost. It was captured by Sweden, with which the Plus Peace Treaty was signed in 1583.

Thus, the following reasons can be distinguished for the defeat of the Russian state, which is summing up the results of the Liovna war:

adventurism and ambitions of the tsar - Russia could not wage a war simultaneously with three strong states;
the pernicious influence of the oprichnina, economic ruin, Tatar attack.
A deep economic crisis within the country, which broke out at the 3rd and 4th stages of hostilities.

Despite the negative outcome, it was the Livonian War that determined the directions of Russia's foreign policy for many years to come - to gain access to the Baltic Sea.

Siege of Pskov by King Stephen Bathory in 1581, Karl Pavlovich Bryullov

Date: January 15, 1582
Location: the village of Kiverova Gora, 15 versts from Zapolsky Yam.
Type: peace treaty.
Military Conflict: The Livonian War.
Participants, countries: Rzeczpospolita - Russian kingdom.
Participants, representatives of countries: J. Zbarazhsky, A. Radziwill, M. Garaburda and H. Varshevitsky - D. P. Yeletsky, R.
Livonian war

V. Olferiev, N. N. Vereshchagin and Z. Sviyazev.
Mediator in negotiations: Antonio Possevino.

The Yam-Zapolsky peace treaty was concluded on January 15, 1582 between the Russian kingdom and the Commonwealth. This agreement was concluded for 10 years and became one of the main acts that ended the Livonian War.

Yam-Zapolsky peace treaty: conditions, results and meaning

Under the terms of the Yam-Zapolsky peace treaty, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth returned all the conquered Russian cities and territories, namely the Pskov and Novgorod lands. The exception was the region of Velizh, where the border was restored, which existed until 1514 (until the annexation of Smolensk to the Russian kingdom).

The Russian kingdom gave away all of its territories in the Baltic states (territory belonging to the Livonian Order). Stefan Batory also demanded a large monetary compensation, but Ivan IV refused him. The treaty, at the insistence of the ambassadors of the Russian kingdom, did not mention the Livonian cities that were seized by Sweden. And although the ambassadors of the Rzecz Pospolita made a special statement, which stipulated territorial claims in relation to Sweden, this issue remained open.

In 1582, the treaty was ratified in Moscow. Ivan IV the Terrible intended to use this treaty to build up forces and resume active hostilities with Sweden, which was still not implemented in practice. Despite the fact that the Russian kingdom did not acquire new territories and did not resolve contradictions with the Commonwealth, the threat in the form of the Livonian Order no longer existed.

Introduction 3

1.Reasons for the Livonian War 4

2. War Phases 6

3. Results and consequences of the war 14

Conclusion 15

List of used literature 16

Introduction.

The relevance of research... The Livonian War is a significant stage in Russian history. Long-term and exhausting, it brought Russia many losses. It is very important and relevant to consider this event, because any military action changed the geopolitical map of our country, had a significant impact on its further socio-economic development. This also applies directly to the Livonian War. It will also be interesting to reveal the diversity of points of view on the causes of this collision, the opinions of historians on this matter.

Article: The Livonian War, its political meaning and consequences

After all, the pluralism of opinions indicates that there are many contradictions in views. Consequently, the topic has not been sufficiently studied and is relevant for further consideration.

The purpose of this work is the disclosure of the essence of the Livonian War. In order to achieve the goal, it is necessary to consistently solve a number of tasks :

- identify the causes of the Livonian War

- analyze its stages

- consider the results and consequences of the war

1.Causes of the Livonian War

In general, the reasons for the Livonian War can be clearly identified. However, Russian historians interpret them in different ways.

So, for example, N.M. Karamzin connects the beginning of the war with the ill will of the Livonian Order. Aspirations of Ivan the Terrible to reach the Baltic Sea Karamzin fully approves, calling them "beneficial intentions for Russia."

NI Kostomarov believes that on the eve of the war Ivan the Terrible faced an alternative - either to get rid of the Crimea, or to take possession of Livonia. The historian explains Ivan IV's decision, contrary to common sense, to fight on two fronts by the “discord” between his advisers.

SM Soloviev explains the Livonian War by Russia's need for "assimilation of the fruits of European civilization", the carriers of which were not allowed to Russia by the Livonians, who owned the main Baltic ports.

IN. Klyuchevsky practically does not consider the Livonian War at all, since he analyzes the external position of the state only from the point of view of its influence on the development of socio-economic relations within the country.

S.F. Platonov believes that Russia was simply dragged into the Livonian War. The historian believes that Russia could not evade what was happening on its western borders, could not come to terms with unfavorable terms of trade.

MN Pokrovsky believes that Ivan the Terrible started the war on the recommendations of some "advisers" from a number of the army.

According to R.Yu. Vipper, "The Livonian War was prepared and planned for quite a long time by the leaders of the Chosen Rada."

RG Skrynnikov connects the beginning of the war with the first success of Russia - the victory in the war with the Swedes (1554-1557), under the influence of which plans were put forward for the conquest of Livonia and the establishment in the Baltic. The historian also notes that "The Livonian War turned the Eastern Baltic into an arena of struggle between states seeking domination of the Baltic Sea."

V.B. Kobrin pays attention to the personality of Adashev and notes his key role in unleashing the Livonian War.

In general, formal reasons were found for the start of the war. The real reasons were the geopolitical need for Russia to gain access to the Baltic Sea, as the most convenient for direct connections with the centers of European civilizations, as well as the desire to take an active part in the division of the territory of the Livonian Order, the progressive disintegration of which was becoming obvious, but which, not wanting strengthening of Russia, hindered its external contacts. For example, the Livonian authorities did not allow more than a hundred specialists from Europe invited by Ivan IV to pass through their lands. Some of them were imprisoned and executed.

The formal reason for the start of the Livonian War was the question of "Yuryev's tribute" (Yuryev, later named Derpt (Tartu), was founded by Yaroslav the Wise). According to the agreement of 1503, an annual tribute was to be paid for him and the adjacent territory, which, however, was not done. In addition, the Order entered into a military alliance with the Lithuanian-Polish king in 1557.

2. The stages of the war.

The Livonian War can be roughly divided into 4 stages. The first (1558-1561) is directly related to the Russian-Livonian War. The second (1562-1569) included primarily the Russian-Lithuanian war. The third (1570-1576) was distinguished by the resumption of the struggle of the Russians for Livonia, where they, together with the Danish prince Magnus, fought against the Swedes. The fourth (1577-1583) is associated primarily with the Russian-Polish war. During this period, the Russian-Swedish war continued.

Let's consider each of the stages in more detail.

First step. In January 1558, Ivan the Terrible moved his troops to Livonia. The beginning of the war brought him victories: Narva and Yuryev were taken. In the summer and autumn of 1558 and at the beginning of 1559, Russian troops passed all of Livonia (up to Reval and Riga) and advanced in Courland to the borders of East Prussia and Lithuania. However, in 1559, under the influence of political figures grouped around A.F. Adashev, who hindered the expansion of the scope of the military conflict, Ivan the Terrible was forced to conclude an armistice. In March 1559, it was concluded for a period of six months.

Second phase. While Sweden and Denmark were at war with each other, Ivan IV led successful operations against Sigismund II Augustus. In 1563, the Russian army took Plock, a fortress that opened the way to the capital of Lithuania Vilno and to Riga. But already at the beginning of 1564, the Russians suffered a series of defeats on the Ulla River and near Orsha; in the same year, a boyar and a major military leader, Prince A.M. Kurbsky.

Stage three. Since 1569 the war is becoming protracted. This year, at the Sejm in Lublin, the unification of Lithuania and Poland into a single state - Rzeczpospolita took place, with which in 1570 Russia managed to conclude an armistice for three years.

Since Lithuania and Poland in 1570 could not quickly enough concentrate their forces against the Moscow state, since were exhausted by the war, then Ivan IV began in May 1570 to negotiate an armistice with Poland and Lithuania. At the same time, he creates, neutralizing Poland, an anti-Swedish coalition, realizing his long-standing idea of forming a state vassal from Russia in the Baltic States.

The Danish Duke Magnus accepted the offer of Ivan the Terrible to become his vassal ("goldman") and in the same May 1570, upon his arrival in Moscow, was proclaimed "King of Livonian". The Russian government undertook to provide the new state, which settled on the island of Ezel, with its military assistance and material resources, so that it could expand its territory at the expense of Swedish and Lithuanian-Polish possessions in Livonia. The parties intended to seal the allied relations between Russia and the "kingdom" of Magnus by marrying the tsar's niece, daughter of Prince Vladimir Andreyevich Staritsky - Maria.

The proclamation of the Livonian kingdom was supposed, according to the calculations of Ivan IV, to provide Russia with the support of the Livonian feudal lords, i.e. of all German knighthood and nobility in Estonia, Livonia and Courland, and therefore not only an alliance with Denmark (through Magnus), but also, most importantly, an alliance and support of the Habsburg empire. With this new combination in Russian foreign policy, the tsar intended to create a vice from two fronts for the too aggressive and turbulent Poland, which had grown due to the inclusion of Lithuania. Like Vasily IV, Ivan the Terrible also expressed the idea of the possibility and necessity of the partition of Poland between the German and Russian states. More closely, the king was concerned about the possibility of creating a Polish-Swedish coalition on his western borders, which he tried with all his might to prevent. All this speaks of the tsar's correct, strategically deep understanding of the balance of power in Europe and his precise vision of the problems of Russian foreign policy in the short and long term. That is why his military tactics were correct: he sought to defeat Sweden alone as soon as possible, until it came to a joint Polish-Swedish aggression against Russia.

The events of the Livonian War are a classic example of Europe's reluctance to let the Russian state into the world political and economic arena. The confrontation between Russia and European states, which, by the way, continues to this day, did not begin suddenly. There is this confrontation from time immemorial and there are many reasons. Although the main one is competition. At first it was a spiritual competition - the struggle of the pastors of the Christian church for the flock, and, along the way, for the territorial possessions of this flock. So, the events of the Livonian War of the 16th century are echoes of the struggle waged between the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches.

The first Russian tsar declared war on the Livonian Order in 1558. The official reason was the fact that the Livonians had already stopped paying tribute for the possession of the city of Dorpat, which they had captured in the 13th century, for 50 years already. In addition, the Livonians did not want to let specialists and craftsmen from the German states into Muscovy. The military campaign began in 1558 and lasted until 1583 and was called the Livonian War in world history.

Three periods of the Livonian War

The events of the Livonian War have three periods, which happened with varying degrees of success for Tsar Ivan the Terrible. The first period is 1558-1563. Russian troops carry out successful military operations, which lead in 1561 to the defeat of the Livonian Order. Russian troops captured the cities of Narva, Dorpat. They came close to Riga and Tallinn. The last successful operation for the Russian troops was the capture of Polotsk - this happened in 1563. The Livonian War took on a protracted nature, which was facilitated by the internal problems of the Moscow state.

The second period in the Livonian War lasts from 1563 to 1578. Denmark, Sweden, Poland and Lithuania united against the troops of the Russian tsar. Pursuing each their own goal in the war with Muscovy, these Northern European states pursued a common goal - not to allow the Russian state to enter the number of European states that claim a dominant position. The Moscow state was not supposed to return those European territories that belonged to it during the times of Kievan Rus and were lost during internecine and feudal squabbles and wars of conquest. The situation in the Livonian War was complicated for the Russian troops by the economic weakness of the Moscow state, which during this period was going through a period of ruin. The ruin and exsanguination of an already not too rich country occurred as a result of the oprichnina, which turned out to be an enemy no less bloodthirsty and cruel than the Livonian Order. The knife of betrayal stabbed him in the back of his sovereign, as well as in the back of his country, - a prominent Russian military leader, a member of the Chosen Rada of Ivan the Terrible, his friend and associate. Kurbsky in 1563 goes over to the side of King Sigismund and takes part in military operations against the Russian troops. He knew many of the military plans of the Russian tsar, which he did not fail to report to his former enemies. In addition, Lithuania and Poland are united in 1569 into a single state - Rzeczpospolita.

The third period of the Lithuanian War takes place from 1579 to 1583. This is the period of defensive battles waged by the Russians against the combined forces of the enemy. As a result, the Moscow state loses Polotsk in 1579, Velikie Luki in 1581. In August 1581, the Polish king Stefan Batory began the siege of the city of Pskov, in which Kurbsky also took part. A truly heroic siege lasted almost six months, but the invading troops never entered the city. The Polish king and the Russian tsar signed the Yampol Peace Treaty in January 1582. The Russian state lost not only the Baltic lands and many primordially Russian cities, but also did not get access to the Baltic Sea. The main task of the Livonian War was not solved.

Since then, he has owned most of the modern Baltic states - Estonia, Livonia and Courland. In the 16th century, Livonia lost some of its former power. From within, it was seized by strife, which was intensified by the church Reformation that penetrated here. The Archbishop of Riga quarreled with the order master, and the cities were at enmity with both of them. Internal turmoil weakened Livonia, and all its neighbors were not averse to taking advantage of this. Prior to the seizure of the Livonian knights, the Baltic lands were dependent on Russian princes. With this in mind, the sovereigns of Moscow believed that they had quite legal rights to Livonia. Due to its coastal position, Livonia was of great commercial importance. After Moscow inherited the commerce of Novgorod, conquered by it, with the Baltic lands. However, the Livonian rulers in every possible way limited the relations that Muscovy Rus had with Western Europe through their region. Fearing Moscow and trying to prevent its rapid strengthening, the Livonian government did not allow European craftsmen and many goods to enter Russia. The apparent hostility of Livonia gave rise to the Russians' enmity towards it. Seeing the weakening of the Livonian Order, the Russian rulers feared that its territory would be seized by some other, stronger enemy who would treat Moscow even worse.

Already after the conquest of Novgorod, Ivan III built the Russian fortress Ivangorod on the Livonian border, against the city of Narva. After the conquest of Kazan and Astrakhan, the Chosen Rada advised Ivan the Terrible to turn to the predatory Crimea, whose hordes constantly raided the southern Russian regions, driving thousands of captives into slavery every year. But Ivan IV chose to attack Livonia. Confidence in easy success in the west gave the tsar a successful outcome of the war with the Swedes in 1554-1557.

The beginning of the Livonian War (briefly)

Grozny remembered the old treaties that obliged Livonia to pay tribute to the Russians. It had not been brought in for a long time, but now the tsar demanded not only to renew the payment, but also to compensate that the Livonians had not given Russia in previous years. The Livonian government began to drag out the negotiations. Losing patience, Ivan the Terrible broke off all relations and in the first months of 1558 began the Livonian War, which was destined to drag on for 25 years.

In the first two years of the war, the Moscow troops acted very successfully. They ravaged almost all of Livonia, except for the most powerful cities and castles. Livonia could not resist powerful Moscow alone. The order state disintegrated, surrendering in parts to the supreme power of stronger neighbors. Estland came under the suzerainty of Sweden, Livonia submitted to Lithuania. Ezel Island became the possession of the Danish Duke Magnus, and Courland was secularization, that is, it has turned from a church property into a secular one. The former master of the spiritual order Kettler became the secular duke of Courland and recognized himself as a vassal of the Polish king.

Poland and Sweden entered the war (briefly)

The Livonian Order thus ceased to exist (1560-1561). Its lands were divided by neighboring powerful states, which demanded that Ivan the Terrible renounce all the conquests made at the beginning of the Livonian War. Grozny rejected this demand and opened a fight with Lithuania and Sweden. Thus, new participants were involved in the Livonian War. The struggle between the Russians and the Swedes went on intermittently and sluggishly. Ivan IV moved the main forces to Lithuania, acting against it not only in Livonia, but also in the regions south of the latter. In 1563, Grozny took the ancient Russian city of Polotsk from the Lithuanians. The royal armies ravaged Lithuania all the way to Vilna (Vilnius). War-worn out Lithuanians offered Grozny peace with the concession of Polotsk. In 1566, Ivan IV convened a Zemsky Sobor in Moscow to discuss whether to end the Livonian War or continue it. The council spoke in favor of continuing the war, and it went on for another ten years with a preponderance of the Russians, until the talented commander Stefan Batory (1576) was elected to the Polish-Lithuanian throne.

The turning point of the Livonian War (briefly)

The Livonian War had noticeably weakened Russia by that time. The oprichnina, which ruined the country, undermined her strength even more. Many prominent Russian military leaders fell victim to the oprichnina terror of Ivan the Terrible. From the south, the Crimean Tatars began to attack Russia with even greater energy, whom Grozny frivolously missed to conquer or at least completely weaken after the conquest of Kazan and Astrakhan. The Crimeans and the Turkish Sultan demanded that Russia, now bound by the Livonian War, renounce the ownership of the Volga region and restore the independence of the Astrakhan and Kazan khanates, which had previously brought it so much grief with brutal attacks and looting. In 1571, the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey, taking advantage of the diversion of Russian forces to Livonia, staged an unexpected invasion, marched with a large army as far as Moscow and burned the entire city outside the Kremlin. In 1572 Devlet-Giray tried to repeat this success. He again reached the Moscow environs with his horde, but the Russian army of Mikhail Vorotynsky at the last moment distracted the Tatars with an attack from the rear and inflicted a strong defeat on them at the Battle of Molody.

Ivan the Terrible. Painting by V. Vasnetsov, 1897

The energetic Stefan Batory began decisive action against Grozny just when the oprichnina brought the central regions of the Moscow state to desolation. The people fled en masse from the tyranny of Grozny to the southern outskirts and to the newly subjugated Volga region. The state center of Russia has become scarce in people and resources. Grozny now could not, with the same ease, put large armies on the front of the Livonian War. Batory's decisive onslaught did not meet with a proper rebuff. In 1577 the Russians achieved their last successes in the Baltics, but already in 1578 they were defeated there at Wenden. The Poles have achieved a turning point in the Livonian War. In 1579 Batory recaptured Polotsk, and in 1580 took the strong Moscow fortresses Velizh and Velikiye Luki. Having previously shown arrogance towards the Poles, Grozny now sought mediation from Catholic Europe in peace negotiations with Batory and sent an embassy (Shevrigin) to the Pope and the Austrian emperor. In 1581