Stages of development of culturological knowledge. The main stages of the formation of culturological knowledge
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1.3. The main stages of the formation of cultural studies
The development of culture was accompanied by the formation of its identity. Thinkers have always sought to understand and evaluate the phenomena of culture, thereby influencing the cultural processes taking place in society. "The process of development and expression of spiritual, intellectual and emotional attitude to culture can be called the formation of cultural studies."
The periodization of the stages of the formation of cultural studies can be carried out for various reasons. Allocate pre-classical (antiquity, Middle Ages); classic (XIV - late XIX century); non-classical (first half of the 20th century); postnonclassical (end of XX century) stages. Other authors cite a different periodization: pre-scientific, scientific-historical and scientific-philosophical stages. V. Rozin distinguishes the following periods of the formation of cultural studies: philosophical (here the very idea of culture is constituted); empirical study of cultural phenomena; building cultural studies as a scientific discipline; deployment of applied research.
At the same time, many researchers believe that the periodization of cultural studies can, to a certain extent, be based on the chronology of historical types of culture: antiquity and antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, New time, modernity.
Consider the formation of cultural studies, based on the last of the above periodization schemes.
In antiquity and antiquity, mythological ideas about the laws of the cultural and historical process prevailed. However, already in myths, an attitude towards culture as a mediator between nature and man, as a manifestation of man's creative powers given to him from the gods, was developed. Homer and Hesiod were the first systematizers of ancient mythological ideas about the laws of the cultural and historical process. So, in the poems of Hesiod, a clear line is drawn between the kingdom of nature and the kingdom of people. This line is in morality. Thus, Hesiod laid the foundation for the understanding of culture as a manifestation of morality in society.
At the same time, in antiquity and antiquity, the concept of "culture" was often interpreted as a purposeful human impact on nature (for example, cultivating the land, planting gardens, etc.), although there was a different understanding of it - education and training of the person himself. In ancient consciousness, the concept of culture is identified with paideia, that is, education. Paideia, according to Plato, meant a guide to change the whole person in his being.
The problematic of the philosophy of culture was first recognized by the sophists, who formulated the antinomy of the natural and the moral (identified with culture).
As already noted, the scientific term "culture" appeared only in the 17th century, but at the early stages of historical development there were concepts similar to it (for example, ren - in the Chinese tradition, dharma - in the Indian tradition). In Latin, the word "culture" appears. For example, Marcus Porcius Cato wrote a treatise on agriculture, the translation of the title of which is "agriculture". It was not only about the cultivation of the soil, but also about a special emotional attitude towards it. Therefore, "culture" here also meant reverence, worship. The Romans used the word "culture" in the genitive case: culture of speech, culture of thought, etc.
In the late Roman era, another interpretation of the concept of "culture" was born, close to the concept of "civilization". Culture was associated with a positively assessed urban lifestyle.
In the Middle Ages, the word “cult” was used more often than the word “culture”. In the writings of thinkers of that time, culture was associated with signs of personal excellence. This is, for example, the religious interpretation of culture in Christianity. In the works of Augustine the Blessed, a providentialist understanding of the history of culture was given, that is, its gradual path to the kingdom of God through the inner revelation of God in man.
In the Renaissance there is a return to the ancient meaning of the word "culture" as a harmonious and sublime development of man, containing his active, creative principle. Accordingly, the improvement of culture began to be understood as the embodiment of the humanistic ideal of man.
In modern times, there is a great change in the interpretation of the phenomenon of "culture". Culture begins to be understood as an independent phenomenon and means the results of the activity of a social person. Culture is opposed to nature, with its spontaneous and unbridled principles. It more and more coincides with such phenomena as enlightenment, education, upbringing. Such an understanding of culture during this period is no coincidence. The formation of machine production, the great geographical discoveries, the formation of scientific knowledge and its rapid growth - all this spoke of the decisive role of man and society in the processes of their life. Therefore, culture was also thought of as the cumulative result of what mankind has achieved.
The French enlighteners of the 18th century (Voltaire, Turgot, Condorcet) reduced the content of the cultural and historical process to the development of the human mind. Culture itself was identified with the forms of spiritual and political development of society, and its manifestations were associated with the movement of science, morality, art, government, and religion. The goals of culture were considered by authors in different ways. So, in eudemonic conceptions of culture, its goal was determined from the highest purpose of reason - to make all people happy; in naturalistic - to live in harmony with the demands and needs of their natural nature.
During this period, the main approaches to understanding the development of culture were formed. So, D. Vico puts forward the idea of cyclical development of culture, considering that all peoples at different times go through three stages: the era of the gods - the childhood of mankind; the era of heroes - his youth; the era of people - its maturity. Moreover, each epoch ends with a general crisis and disintegration. The philosophy of history by Voltaire and Condorcet was based on the idea of the progressive development of culture. They thought of progress as a forward movement on the basis of the boundless development of the human mind.
Thus, it is characteristic for the figures of the Enlightenment to search for the meaning of history precisely in connection with the development of culture.
At the same time, the concept of "civilization" appeared, the essence of which was urbanization and the growing role of material and technical culture. At the same time, already within the framework of the Enlightenment, a "criticism" of culture and civilization is formed, opposing the depravity and moral depravity of "cultural" nations with the simplicity and purity of the customs of peoples who were at the patriarchal stage of development. Rousseau wrote that the development of the sciences and arts contributed not to an improvement, but to a deterioration in morals, and the evil associated with social inequality absorbed all the good that the development of culture gave. Rousseau idealized the patriarchal way of life, the natural simplicity of morals.
Criticism of civilization and culture was perceived by German classical philosophy, which gave it the character of general theoretical comprehension. However, philosophers saw the resolution of the contradictions of culture in different ways. Kant believed that a person experiences a strong influence of culture, it is she who determines his boundaries of knowledge, makes him deviate from his natural state. But through moral self-awareness, a person can break out of the clutches of culture and preserve his I AM... It is moral consciousness that is the means of liberating the spirit. Other philosophers, such as Schiller, romantics saw such a means in the aesthetic consciousness.
The most complete and deep analysis of culture and its development was given in that period by Hegel. The development of culture was associated with the gradual self-realization of the spirit. Each stage of culture differs from another, in his opinion, the fullness of the presence of mind. In the philosophical consciousness, he is presented to the maximum. Culture, thus, acts as an area of human spiritual freedom, which lies outside the boundaries of his natural and social existence. Culture is one, but at the same time it is multiple, since it is realized through the spirit of the peoples. Hence the variety of types and forms of cultural development, located in a certain historical sequence and forming in the aggregate a single line of spiritual evolution of mankind.
The ideas of the German philosopher and educator I. Herder played an important role in the development of cultural studies. His understanding of the development of culture is based on the principle of the organic unity of the world. He viewed culture as the progressive development of the faculties of the human mind. Accordingly, culture as a part of the world develops progressively and leads humanity to goodness, reason and justice. According to Herder, there are several approaches to the interpretation of culture: as a progressive development of a person's spiritual life, as a certain stage in the development of mankind, as a characteristic of the values of enlightenment. Herder's ideas were later embodied in several directions of the study of culture: they created the tradition of comparative historical research of culture (W. Humboldt); laid the foundation for the view of culture as a particular anthropological problem; led to the emergence of a specific analysis of customs and ethnic characteristics of culture.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, many philosophical, sociological and other concepts comprehend the problems associated with culture. Thus, in the "philosophy of life" an irrationalistic interpretation of culture is formed. First of all, the theory of a single linear evolution of culture was criticized. It was opposed to the concept of "local civilizations" - closed and self-sufficient, unique cultural organisms going through the stages of growth, maturation and death (O. Spengler). A. Toynbee developed similar ideas. At the same time, civilization and culture were opposed to them.
Sometimes this opposition took on extreme forms of expression. For example, F. Nietzsche put forward the idea of "natural anticulturalism" of man, while any culture was considered as suppression of his natural, perfect state. Within the framework of this direction, special ways of cognizing culture have also been formed. V. Dilthey believed that the life of culture cannot be explained, but can only be felt through empathy, empathic vision. A. Bergson, one of the representatives of the philosophy of life, proposed to divide all cultures into two types: closed, in which life is determined by instincts, and open, based on active interaction with other cultures.
By the end of the 19th century, the belief was formed that a special science was needed to study culture. Moreover, the idea is expressed that a special approach to the study of cultural phenomena is also needed. The neo-Kantians (W. Windelband, G. Rickert, and others) played an important role in solving the above-mentioned problems. According to Rickert, culture has a value character, and its phenomena are unique, therefore, its cognition consists in correlating cultural phenomena with a certain kind of values - moral, aesthetic, religious, etc. Neo-Kantians saw in culture, first of all, a specific system of values and ideas that differ by their role in the life of a particular society.
Under the influence of the "philosophy of life" an existentialist understanding of culture arose. Its essence is in the analysis of a person's experience of his being or direct existence in culture. A person feels his presence in culture as "abandonment", expressed in belonging to a certain class, people, group. But he can overcome this state, revealing his true purpose in this world, his existence (K. Jaspers, M. Heidegger, H. Ortega y Gassett and others).
Since the last third of the 19th century, the study of culture has developed within the framework of anthropology and ethnography. At the same time, different approaches to understanding culture were formed. E. Tylor laid the foundation for cultural anthropology, where the concept of "culture" was defined through the enumeration of its specific elements. F. Boas proposed a method of detailed study of primitive societies, namely their customs, language, etc. B. Malinovsky and A. Radcliffe-Brown laid the foundations of social anthropology, proceeding from the connection between culture and social institutions. At the same time, the function of culture was seen in the mutual correlation and ordering of the elements of the social system.
In structural and functional analysis (T. Parsons, R. Merton), the concept of "culture" began to be used to denote a system of values that determines the degree of orderliness and controllability of the entire life of society. In structural anthropology (K. Levi-Strauss), language was considered as the basis for the study of culture. The methodological basis was the use of some techniques of structural linguistics and information theory in the analysis of the culture of primitive societies. Representatives of this trend were inherent in the idealization of the moral foundations of primitive societies. They characterized mythological thinking as the harmony of rational and sensual principles, destroyed by the further development of mankind.
Among other areas of modern cultural studies, we highlight the following:
Theological cultural studies. Culture is considered in its relation to religious ideals. P. Teilhard de Chardin, one of the representatives of this trend, made a huge contribution not only to the development of the religious interpretation of culture, but also to comparative culturology, to the study of primitive societies (he was among the discoverers of Sinanthropus, the most ancient type of fossil man);
Humanistic cultural studies (A. Schweitzer, T. Mann, G. Hesse, etc.). This direction proceeds from the close connection between culture and ethics, while the actual progress of culture is considered as inseparable from moral progress, and its criterion is set by the level of humanism in society;
Psychological direction in cultural studies (R. Benedict, M. Mead). Based on the concept of Z. Freud, who interpreted culture as a mechanism of social suppression and sublimation of unconscious mental processes, as well as on the concept of neo-Freudians (K. Horney) about culture as a symbolic consolidation of direct mental experiences, representatives of this trend interpret culture as an expression of the social general significance of the basic mental states;
Marxist cultural studies. The interpretation of culture in Marxism is based on a materialistic understanding of history. Marxism establishes the genetic link between culture and human labor, with the production of material goods as a defining type of activity. At the same time, attention is drawn to the fact that labor is determined by social conditions, that economic relations of people play a decisive role in the development of culture. At the same time, the development of culture itself has a contradictory character, in connection with which two types of culture are distinguished in Marxism, each of which expresses the goals and interests of antagonistic classes.
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TOPIC 6 The main stages of the formation of cultural studies The development of culture was accompanied by the formation of its self-awareness. The myths and legends of peoples, the teachings of individual thinkers contain guesses and ideas that express the desire to understand, understand and evaluate culture as a single
Initially, the study of culture went within the boundaries of philosophical problems and in the mainstream of the philosophy of history. For the first time using the concept of "culture" as the opposite of "nature" - "nature", the ancient authors defined the boundaries of research - an artificial world created by man himself. In the philosophy of the 17th – 18th centuries, the study of culture occurs as a study of ontological (ie, related to the most general laws of being) problems, as well as a process of systematizing accumulated historical knowledge. In European history, the 18th century, called the Age of Enlightenment, became the "Age of Philosophy." The Enlighteners strove to establish the cult of Reason, therefore, everything that was created by the Human Reason was made the subject of their research.
The authors of this time closely associate the development of culture with ethical and aesthetic problems, however, they have narrowed the very concept to the limit, in fact, making the word "culture" synonymous with the concepts of "education" and "good breeding". Historical knowledge was equally limited, providing a list of names and events in European history starting from ancient times.
In the European historical and philosophical tradition of the 18th century, dominated by Eurocentrism - by "culture" is meant only the culture of Europe since ancient times. The first to try to retreat from this position Johann Gottfried Herder(1744-1803). In his work "Ideas for the Philosophy of the History of Mankind," he describes the progressive development of European culture - his contemporaries knew almost no facts from the history of other cultures and peoples. However, Herder's views are much deeper than those of other authors of his time - historians and philosophers. Culture, according to Herder, is the result of human activity; it includes science, language, religion, art, and the state. At the same time, the history of mankind is the history of its culture. The culture of every nation, every historical epoch is very peculiar, therefore every culture requires deep study and every culture under study should be treated with due respect. Characterizing the culture of the Middle Ages, which was considered to be the time of decline and degradation of all forms of spiritual life, Herder argues that there are no peoples outside of culture, that the Middle Ages is not a “step backward”, but the same stage in the development of culture as Antiquity or Modernity. According to Herder, we can talk about the independent development of culture, but at the same time take into account that quantitative changes take place over time, which do not make the culture better qualitatively, therefore there can be no “bad” or “good” periods in the history of culture. It was a step towards creating cultural anthropology. Herder comes to the conclusion that culture is created by people and it is through acquaintance with culture that a person becomes a person proper.
The development of philosophical thought at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries led to a comprehensive study of the human person, including in the context of culture. Philosophers pose the question of the essence of man and see its solution in defining the personality as Homo sapiens, which appears to them as a result of education and upbringing, that is, the direct impact of the cultural environment. Enlighteners introduce into active circulation the concept of "culture" as the beginning of the formation of personality.
The study of culture continues in the works of the classics of German philosophy I. Kant and G. Hegel. Immanuel Kant(1724-1804) saw in the development of culture a person's path to moral perfection. According to the Kantian system, man belongs both to the world of "nature", phenomena, and to the world of "freedom", noumena. "Freedom" is what should be, if you follow the highest moral rule, which Kant calls the "categorical imperative": "Do with others as you want people to do with you."
In obedience to this moral law, a person exercises his freedom. A person's ability to recognize these tasks and try to follow them is culture. However, Kant writes not about "culture" in general, but about its specific forms - the culture of communication, the culture of mental activity. Culturological problems are not singled out by Kant as independent, but are part of his philosophy of nature. Kant extends his critical method not only to the analysis of nature, but also to the study of the spiritual aspects of human existence.
In the philosophical system Georg Hegel(1770-1831) the philosophy of culture does not occupy such a significant place. Hegel's culture has a traditional "education". In his works, the philosophy of history is formed as a stage-by-stage embodiment of freedom and its awareness of the spirit.
In the XIX century, which replaced the "century of philosophy", the culture is studied by historians. They make civilizations the subject of their research, study various historical and temporal forms, considering them to be different "cultures". Historians of the 19th century analyze rapidly growing factual material. At first, this is a huge amount of written and archaeological sources concerning the history of Europe. Interest in the history of early Christianity serves as an impetus for the study of ancient history, translation and comparison of texts written in ancient Greek and Latin, archaeological excavations. Following the tradition of ancient authors, the history of Europe begins with the history of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. All antiquity is divided into "civilized" Antiquity and "barbarism", which unites the rest of the world. Both "civilized" and "barbaric" beginnings of European history require a clear definition of their space-time boundaries, a comparative analysis. Secondly, the era of the Napoleonic wars "opened" Ancient Egypt to Europeans and laid the foundation for the study of the Ancient East. Deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs made it possible to open a hitherto completely unfamiliar, wonderful world of ancient civilizations. They, too, had to be included in the number of cultural achievements, and this forced the boundaries of the cultural area to be expanded from European to worldwide. Thirdly, Europeans "discover" for themselves anew the East of their day. It was necessary not only to study the unique achievements of India, China, Japan, but also to comprehend what is the originality of these cultures and, most importantly, what are the foundations and prospects of dialogue with them. Fourth, numerous missionary trips and geographical expeditions gave various descriptions of the life and customs of those peoples who were still at the primitive stage of development - the aborigines of Australia, the American Indians, the indigenous inhabitants of Africa, the peoples of the North. It was necessary to study many different cultures, ancient and modern.
One of the first authors who summarized historical data and conducted their culturological research was Nikolay Yakovlevich Danilevsky(1822 1885). He turned to the question, which since the 17th century has been central to Russian social thought - which way is Russia going? Having entered into the discussion of this issue on the side of the Slavophiles, N. Ya. Danilevsky saw this problem as a cultural one - to which culture is Russia closer? In his book "Russia and Europe" (1869), he builds a theory of cultural-historical types, speaking about the peculiarities and originality of Russian culture among other "native" cultures. Danilevsky divided all peoples known to historians into three groups:
At first,"Positive", that is, those that created great civilizations, called "cultural and historical types." N. Ya. Danilevsky named the following types - Egyptian, Assyrian-Babylonian-Phoenician-Chaldean, or Old Semitic; Chinese; hindi-indian; Iranian; Hebrew; Greek; Roman; neosemite, or Arabic; Germanic-Roman, or European. The Mexican and Peruvian types perished without completing the full cycle of their development;
Secondly,"Scourges of God" who acted as destroyers of decrepit civilizations, for example, the Huns, Mongols, Turks;
third, a kind of "ethnographic material" that enriched other civilizations, such as the Finns.
All civilizations, like a living organism, go through the stages of origin and formation, flourishing and gradual dying. Their development takes place in accordance with the laws of cultural and historical development:
“Law 1. Any tribe or family of peoples ... constitutes an original cultural and historical type, if in general, due to its spiritual inclinations, it is capable of historical development ...
Law 2. It is necessary that the peoples, to him (cultural and historical type. - Approx. auth.) owned enjoyed political independence.
Law 3. The beginnings of a civilization of one cultural-historical type are not transmitted to peoples of another type.
Law 4. The civilization inherent in every cultural-historical type only reaches fullness, diversity and richness when the ethnographic elements that make up it are diverse - when they ... using independence, constitute a federation ...
Law 5. The course of development of cultural and historical types comes closest to those ... plants in which the period of growth is indefinitely long, but the period of flowering and fruiting is relatively short ... "
Danilevsky defines four main foundations of cultural activity: religious, political and economic, scientific and technological, aesthetic. Each of the cultural and historical types that have passed their life cycle manifested themselves in one or two directions, for example, Romano-Germanic was especially successful in the political, economic and scientific and technological directions. It should be replaced by a new type, which is still only moving towards its heyday - the Russian-Slavic. This type will differ significantly from all previous ones precisely in that it develops equally on all four bases.
The author, who continued the direction determined by N.Ya. Danilevsky, became Oswald Spengler(1880-1936). His book "Oakat Europe", published in 1914, became a kind of bestseller. Spengler strikes a blow at the concept of Eurocentrism, describing various cultural and historical types, in each of which he sees a manifestation of the natural path of growth, development and death of culture. Life, according to Spengler, is broader and more diverse than culture. Each culture, like a living organism, lives its own "life" and has its own "soul", which makes all cultures inimitable and unique. So, for example, Spengler calls ancient culture "Apollonian", European - "Faustian", Byzantine-Arab - "magic". Each culture has its own path and its own "destiny". Spengler seeks to comprehend the crisis of European culture at the beginning of the 20th century, to determine its causes and consequences. Unlike N. Ya. Danilevsky, who did not separate the concepts of "culture" and "civilization", O. Spengler opposes them. He called “civilization” the last stage in the development of culture, when it moves to a technical level, replacing humanistic values with material well-being.
A detailed description of various cultures, their typology and analysis of historical development are given in the work Arnold Toynbee(1889-1975) "Comprehension of history". Toynbee poses the question of the driving force of history by viewing "civilization" as the basic unit of history. Similar to his predecessors, the historian studies in detail various types of civilizations, following a cyclical scheme: birth, growth, flowering, breakdown, decay - successive stages in the life of any civilization. The mechanism of development, he considers the coincidence of circumstances that develop according to the scenario "challenge" - "response". "Challenge" - some events that dramatically change the course of history. To "answer", you need a group of people who are aware of this "challenge" and will accept it. Considering this process necessary for progressive development, Toynbee assigns the main role to a small elite group - priests, leaders, politicians, scientists, who can lead a lack of initiative. In his opinion, the growing authority of scientific knowledge and the growing influence of religion can have an active influence on public consciousness, on the economy, on politics. All known history of culture, or civilization, A. Toynbee divides into several generations. The first is primitive, unwritten cultures that develop spontaneously. The second is dynamically developing cultures, which put forward outstanding personalities leading them. There were four centers of such cultures - Egyptian-Sumerian, Minoan, Chinese, South American. The third generation, in which less than ten of the three dozen cultures remain, is based on “secondary” and “tertiary” religious systems that grew out of the “primary” ones. According to A. Toynbee's theory, the death of civilizations is not fatal. He is looking for some new spiritual theory that can overcome the disunity of humanity and thereby save him.
The analysis of history as a single spiritual being of man was carried out Karl Jaspers(1883-1969). From the cyclical scheme, he again returns to the idea of a single line of human development. In his work "The Meaning and Purpose of History" K. Jaspers defines culture as a way of human being. In the basis of the movement of human history, K. Jaspers believes a kind of supernatural, religious principle. The periodization of history given by him is based on the principle of the evolution of man's self-knowledge of himself in the process of realizing the laws of world development. Jaspers identifies four stages of this path - the Promethean epoch, prehistoric, when a person only becomes himself, that is, a cultural being; the era of the great cultures of antiquity - the Sumerian-Babylonian, Egyptian, Aegean, pre-Aryan and Chinese; the era of the spiritual basis of human existence (axial time) - the emergence of a single axis of world cultures, spiritually united in essence, the formation of culture as such; the era of the development of technology, which will lay the foundations for the formation of new cultures, and on their basis - a new axial time, which will become the time of the formation of a new, universal culture that unites all of humanity.
In the second half of the 19th century, the subject of study becomes the person himself as the creator and bearer of culture. The science of human formation becomes anthropology. Sociology and ethnography, which later turned into independent sciences, are formed as branches of anthropology. Since that time, we can talk about the emergence of trends that in the XX century will turn into various schools of cultural studies. Anthropological school was one of the first such schools.
The revolutionary event was the publication in 1868 of the book Edward Tylor(1832-1917) "Primitive culture". The very name itself became revolutionary for that time - the concepts of "primitiveness" and "culture" were considered incompatible. However, the name implies that there are no uncultured peoples and periods in history. The era of primitiveness, which was previously considered barbaric, pre-cultural, is in fact a manifestation of a special form of culture. Tylor not only describes, but also systematizes a huge ethnographic material, characterizing the common features of not only the material, but also the spiritual culture of primitiveness, looking for patterns in the evolution of various forms of culture.
Ethnographic research formed the basis for the study of the phenomena of world culture on the basis of traditional cultures in the works Bronislava Malinovsky(1884-1942) and Franz Boas(1858–1942).
At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, psychologists began to study culture. The founder of the school psychoanalysisSigmund Freud(1856-1939) considered it possible to apply psychological methods to the study of cultural phenomena - myth, religion, art. Freud saw in the study of culture an opportunity to find the mechanism that limits the manifestation of the biological element, the instinctive principle in a person's personality, considering him to be a creature that is guided primarily by reason, and the biological manifests itself in the sphere of the unconscious (for example, in dreams). The work of 3. Freud "Totem and Taboo" (1913) was the starting point of the formation psychological school in cultural studies. Freud, proceeding from his experience as a practicing physician and exploring the manifestations of the unconscious in the human psyche, tried to explain the essence of the phenomenon of creativity, wanted to determine the features of the psychological foundations of art, science, religion. According to the psychoanalyst, culture is opposed to the manifestation of a person's destructive aspirations, such as, for example, aggression. In his work "Dissatisfaction with culture" (1930), Freud wrote: "Culture must exert all its forces in order to put an end to the aggressive drives of a person, to restrain them with the help of appropriate mental reactions." His works such as "The Psychology of the Masses and the Analysis of the Human Self" (1921), "The Future of One Illusion" (1927) can also be considered cultural.
To a greater extent, cultural issues are manifested in the works K.G. cabin boy(1875-1961). Along with the individual unconscious, Jung explores a deeper layer that, in his opinion, remains in the human psyche - the collective unconscious, which manifests itself in the form archetypes. It is the archetypes - some universal human prototypes (the archetype of the Mother, the archetype of the Virgin, the archetype of the Spirit, etc.) are, according to Jung, the foundations of culture. Studying the evolution of myth, Jung examines the manifestation of the archetypes he singled out in various variants of cultures. The typological approach is applied by Jung in the study of psychology, philosophy and mythology of the East. He refers to the cultures of the East as India, Tibet and China, deliberately not combining these cultures with Islamic. Analysis of the psychotechnics of the East, for example, meditation or yoga exercises, is necessary, according to Jung, to identify common features not only of the Eastern, but also of the Western cultures, which he constantly compares: “The West is always looking for elevation, ascension; East - plunge and deepening. External reality, with its spirit of corporeality and heaviness, always seems to a European to be much more powerful and demanding than to an Indian. Therefore, the former seeks exaltation over the world, while the latter willingly returns to the mother's bowels of nature. "
Early XX is formed symbolic school in cultural studies. Founder of the symbolic school in philosophy E. Cassirer(1874-1945) considered symbolic thinking and symbolic human behavior to be the main foundation of culture. L. White studied culture from the same position. The study of culture was carried out in line with the study of various symbolic forms of its existence. A special place was given to the analysis of such a symbolic system as language.
Structural methods studies that originated in linguistics began to be widely used in the history of cultural life (F. Saussure), a hypothesis is put forward about the so-called linguistic relativity (B. Wharf). We are talking about the defining role of language in the formation of the specific features of each culture. According to B. Whorf, each language, on the one hand, is a reflection of certain ideas about the surrounding world, on the other, it forms a special, specific way of thinking. From this it follows that differences between languages (for example, in temporal structures) are due to differences between cultures in the perception and development of the world.
Structural method used in the study of primitive society Claude Levi-Strauss. Examining the linguistic forms of the American Indians, he shows the formation of culture as a result of the processes of symbolization reflected in the language.
In accordance with the basic ideas of Russian religious philosophy, the subject of culturological research can only be a phenomenon that is absolutely opposed to a reality that lends itself to historical description. Taking as a basis the European opposition of culture and civilization as lack of spirituality, philosophers paid attention primarily to the sphere of the Spirit (recall that the philosophers Xviii centuries have defined the Absolute not as Spirit, but as Mind).
The traditions of Danilevsky, Spengler and Toynbee follow Nikolay Alexandrovich Berdyaev(1874 1948), rejecting the linear interpretation of the development of history as untenable. Each culture, in his opinion, is simultaneously mortal and immortal, since the temporary elements or values of the culture die, while the eternal ones continue to exist. "In culture there is a great struggle between eternity and time, a great resistance to the destructive power of time." Western culture, according to Berdyaev, went through the stages of barbarism, medieval Christianity and modern secular humanism. Humanistic culture, exhausted, led to its own destruction. Berdyaev himself wrote that "there are two principles in culture - the conservative, facing the past and maintaining a continuous connection with it, and the creative, facing the future and creating new values." Culture creates eternal values for their own sake, but as soon as pragmatic tasks arise, it turns out to be powerless. Following Spengler, Berdyaev considers the technical stage in the development of culture - civilization - to be a manifestation of the dying of culture, when the base comes to replace the spiritual principle, instead of organisms there are mechanisms.
But the path of death of culture through its transformation into civilization is not the only option for its development. Culture can take a different path - the path of religious renewal of life. This was the Christian medieval culture, but then Christianity ceased to be a religion proper, it was verbalized and ritualized. Berdyaev wrote that Russia did not go through the period of humanism and Renaissance, like Western Europe, but it experienced the crisis of humanism much more acutely, since “Russian humanism was Christian, it was based on philanthropy, mercy, pity, even among those who in their minds retreated from Christianity ". In his works, Berdyaev is not so much concerned with the problem of systematizing the historical types of culture, as he is considering the development of spiritual culture in a concrete historical aspect. His book "The Origins and Meaning of Russian Communism" is devoted to the analysis of the evolution of socio-political theories in Russia and their influence on the spiritual life of Russian society. One of the burning problems for philosophers and publicists in Russia was the definition of the essence of such a stratum of society as the intelligentsia, and the designation of its role in the spiritual development of the country. Defining intellectuals as “the best people of their time,” Berdyaev was able to predict with surprising accuracy the paths of development of Russia in the 20th century, the tragic fate of the Russian intelligentsia.
In the traditions of Russian religious and philosophical thought, a theory was formed P.A. Florensky(1882-1938), who believed that “culture” is based on “cult”, which he understood as that part of reality where the earthly and the divine are united, and “culture” in all its manifestations is the “lateral shoots” of the cult.
At the end of the XIX - beginning of the XX century, there is a turn from the study of the philosophy of culture to the problems sociology culture. Society is becoming the subject of study for culturologists.
The problems of the evolution of European culture as the evolution of ideal forms of political structure are considered by Max Weber(1864-1920). Weber is looking for a rationalistic basis for the development of culture. This is the purpose of his study of the economic foundations of religious life ("Protestant Ethics and the Spirit of Capitalism"). According to Weber, in the social sciences, as in the natural sciences, the basis is formed by scientific abstractions, which he calls "ideal types." These are “feudalism” and “capitalism”, “city” and “village”, “state” and “church”. In addition, Weber addresses the problem of the method of the social sciences. Arguing about the method, Weber comes to the conclusion about the unity of research methods of natural and social sciences.
Since the middle of the 20th century, sociological problems have come to the fore. The specific sociological method in the study of the history of culture applied Pitirim Sorokin(1889-1968). Sorokin collected a huge amount of empirical material, in the generalization of which he used mathematical methods adopted in sociology. Analyzing quantitative data, he draws conclusions about the trends and processes that took place in certain periods of history (for example, by citing data on the quantitative ratio of religious and secular subjects in works of art in different periods of the Renaissance, he shows an increase in the tendency towards secularization of spiritual life in the period under study) ... As a sociologist, P.A. Sorokin reveals the connection between the development of culture and social processes, looking for patterns of such a relationship.
Thus, the formation of cultural studies as a science followed the path of the formation of several schools: anthropological, philosophical, psychological, sociological.
The most important tasks of any science are to define its subject, form a categorical apparatus, limit the range of problems studied, and develop research methods.
The development of culture was accompanied by the formation of its identity. The myths and legends of peoples, and the teachings of individual thinkers contain guesses and ideas expressing the desire to understand, understand and evaluate culture as a single process, Guesses, ideas, teachings were not just a parallel process of registering certain achievements in the cultural development of mankind - they were also part of the cultural process and could not but influence it. They should not be viewed as dispassionate observations. Even the chroniclers expressed their attitude to the events described. This applies all the more to representatives of certain cultures, who experienced both anxiety and confusion, who wanted not only to understand, but also to the best of their ability to somehow influence the development of culture.
The process of development and expression of spiritual, intellectual and emotional attitude to culture can be called the formation of cultural studies. There are several stages in this process: pre-scientific, scientific-historical and scientific-philosophical.
The pre-scientific stage contains early spontaneous guesses and ideas about the consistency and relative completeness, cyclical nature of the cultural-historical process. It can be determined by the end of the emergence of modern science.
The scientific and historical stage lasted until the middle of the 19th century. At this stage, there is still no clear distinction between the development of history and culture. It is characterized by the desire of scientists to understand culture as an integral phenomenon, to build a single picture of the cultural development of people, to find a common basis for history.
Scientific and philosophical stage. Here, the historical approach to culture is preserved and deepened, but the difference between historical and cultural development becomes obvious. In general, this difference consists in the extent to which the ideas and ideals of people coincide with the results of their activities.
During the first, mankind accumulated knowledge about itself, trying to explain where all that we today call culture came from. In antiquity and the Middle Ages, the life and life of the peoples of distant countries were of greatest interest to Europeans. That is why the stories of merchants and travelers who visited India, China and Africa were perceived with great interest. Thus, empirical material on customs, religion, art of various peoples and countries was gradually accumulated. A particularly important role here was played by the great geographical discoveries of the 15th-17th centuries, which expanded the horizons of ideas about the world and led to a revolutionary change in geography and other sciences.
With regard to the stage of the emergence of culturological knowledge, it is impossible to talk about stable directions of cognition of culture, because the separation of the actual idea of culture has not yet taken place. Of course, both in antiquity and in the Middle Ages, there is clearly an interest in evaluative concepts ("good", "beautiful", "noble", etc.). Even attempts are being made to determine the spiritual and value principles of human life, however, they are considered as a natural continuation of the cosmic, divine order. The concept of culture as specifically human, different from natural and divine, began to take shape only in the Renaissance. Although the Roman term "cultura" contains some semantic opposition to the natural (natura), it is not the subject of special and systematic consideration.
In the XVIII century. the accumulated knowledge made it possible to proceed to their generalization and the construction of theoretical constructions on their basis. Special sciences began to form, studying individual areas of the material, social and spiritual life of mankind. Ethnography appeared - the science of the culture and life of the peoples of the world. The object of the main interest of ethnographers was the "uncivilized" tribes that Europeans encountered on the newly discovered lands - Indians, Polynesians, etc.
In connection with the beginning in the middle of the XVIII century. excavations of the ancient Roman city of Pompeii began to form archeology - a historical science that reconstructs the past of mankind from the material remnants of its activities. Art criticism (theory and history of various types of art), folklore studies appeared. In the XIX century. even religion has become a subject of scientific study.
At the end of the XIX - beginning of the XX century. it was already possible to speak of culturology as a special branch of knowledge, separated from philosophy and sociology and generalizing information about culture obtained by other sciences.
Thus, from the XVIII century. the scientific period of the study of culture begins, within the framework of which modern culturology was formed.
The theoretical foundations of cultural studies were laid by L. White, in his work "The concept of culture. Evolution of culture. The Science of Culture ". White considered culturology as a special stage in the comprehension of man and predicted a great future for it.
But this term has not taken root in Western science. It includes cultural studies and social anthropology, history, sociology, semiotics. In our country, culturology is developing very actively at the end of the XX - beginning of the XXI century.
Man is the main subject of the object of culture. Consequently, the concept of culture means the universal relationship of man to the world, through which man creates the world and himself. However, human self-reproduction is based on creativity. Man acts incessantly, changes the world and himself, realizes his potential, to create fundamentally new forms. Thus, creativity is a method of forming a culture, and each culture is a way of a person's creative self-realization. As a result, the development of other cultures enriches a person not only with new knowledge, but also with new creative experience.
The versatility of aspects of human creativity is poured into cultural diversity, and the cultural process unfolds in time and space as the integrity of the diverse. In history, this principle is shown by cultural periods, the problem of the edges of which is the search for cultural unity. In search of the foundations of this unity, culture is considered as the semantic world of man. After all, a person's attitude to the world is determined by meaning. The meaning compares any phenomenon, any object with a person. If something is devoid of meaning, it ceases to exist for a person. The meaning must be distinguished from the meaning, that is, the objectively manifested image or concept. The meaning is not always comprehended by a person: most of the meanings are hidden in the unconscious depths of the human soul. But the meaning can become universally significant, rallying many people, and acts as the basis of their thoughts and feelings. These are the meanings that create culture. A person endows the whole world with these meanings, makes his own assessments, creates with collective creative aspirations and protects a certain ideal reality and the world is issued for a person in its human significance. Thus, culture can also be predetermined through the concept of meaning. In this case, it is a universal way of a person's semantic self-realization, a tendency to hide and affirm the meaning of human life. As the production of meaning, culture inspires people and unites them into certain communities - a nation, a religious group, and others. In the semantic plan, culture should be comprehended as a means of transforming the world into the home of human existence. Therefore, mastering, the study of culture brings a person closer to the truth about himself. Even Socrates defined man as a being who is constantly looking for himself. ...
The development of culture is accompanied by the formation of its self-awareness. In the myths and legends of peoples, in the teachings of thinkers, guesses and ideas are stored that show a tendency to understand and evaluate culture as an integral process. These guesses and teachings not only fixed certain achievements in the cultural development of a person, but they became an integral part of the cultural process and could not but influence it. The process of development and expression of spiritual, intellectual and emotional attitude to culture can be called the formation of cultural studies.
The development of cultural studies consists of several stages.
1. Pre-scientific (the prehistory of culturological knowledge extends from antiquity to the time of the emergence of science) of the New Age. Cognition of culture directly led to the collection of information about different peoples, customs, way of life, and, consequently, its display. In this period, spontaneous judgments about the consistency and relative completeness, cyclical nature of the cultural and historical process were formed.
During the pre-scientific period, mankind accumulated knowledge about itself, trying to clarify where everything that we today call culture came from. In antiquity and the Middle Ages, the life and life of the peoples of distant countries were of the greatest interest to Europeans. That is why the stories of merchants and travelers who visited India, China and Africa were perceived with great interest. That is, little by little empirical material was accumulated about customs, religion, art of various peoples and countries. A particularly significant role was played by the great geographical discoveries of the 15-17 centuries, which expanded the horizons of judgments about the world, led to a revolutionary change in geography and other sciences.
In the 18th century, the accumulated knowledge made it possible to move on to their generalization and the construction of theoretical constructions on their basis. Special sciences began to be developed that comprehend certain areas of the material, social and spiritual life of mankind. Ethnography arose - the science of the culture and life of the peoples of the world. The object of the most important interest of ethnographers was the "uncivilized" tribes that Europeans encountered in the newly discovered lands - Indians, Polynesians and others.
Thanks to the excavations of the ancient Roman city of Pompeii carried out in the middle of the 18th century, archeology began to form - a historical science that reconstructs the past of mankind from the material remains of its activities. Art criticism (theory and history of various types of art), folklore studies appeared. In the 19th century, religion also became the subject of scientific study.
In the late 19th - early 20th centuries, it is already possible to declare culturology as a special branch of knowledge, isolated from philosophy and sociology and generalizing information about culture acquired by other sciences.
Thus, since the 18th century, the scientific period of the study of culture arises, within the framework of which modern culturology was formed.
2. Scientific and philosophical stage (from the middle of the 19th century to the present). The historical approach to culture is preserved and strengthened, but the difference between historical and cultural development becomes clear. Taken together, this difference lies in the extent to which the intentions and ideals of people converge with the results. Culture is a linking of coincidences of human intentions and achievements. On a general, world level, cultural studies means the entire body of knowledge about culture, accumulated in all branches, that is, humanitarian, social and natural scientific knowledge. However, in a rather narrow and strictly established sense, "culturology" is considered as the science of culture. The term "cultural studies" was first introduced into circulation by Leslie White. Back in the 19th century, there were many attempts to create a science of culture, they were made in countries such as England, Germany, France. Guided by the usual scheme of the emergence of science, cultural studies emerged from the generalization of empirical knowledge in the field of archeology, ethnography, art, and later sociology. Tylor's book "Primitive Culture" was one of the original works that focused on culture. The most significant fruits have been achieved in social and cultural anthropology. In the formation of this knowledge, periods are distinguished: ethnographic (1800 - 1860), evolutionist (1860-1895), historical (1895-1925). They became the time of forming judgments about the subject of study, highlighting the main categories and the initial foundations of cultural studies. But decisive changes in the formation of cultural studies were made in the 20th century, which led to it as a world outlook science and theory of culture. These modifications were determined by the following factors:
1. the indisputability of the fact that the diversity of cultures is determined by their originality, and not by lagging behind in development.
2. disclosure of the signs of a global cultural crisis.
3. the discovery of the discrepancy between the historical and cultural processes.
4. adding practical value to knowledge of culture and their relevance for use in diplomacy, military affairs, and the practice of mass communications. ...
Today, cultural studies can be analyzed as an integrative scientific community of knowledge generated by the needs of the era at the very junction of cultural philosophy, cultural psychology, sociology, cultural studies, ethnology, anthropology, sociology of culture, theology of culture. Culturology is a type of social and humanitarian knowledge, in which the methods of natural and technical sciences are often applied.
Culturology is distinguished from natural science by attention to artificial objects, from sociology - by an emphasis on the content of the joint life of people. If social philosophy is captured by the meaning of individual and social being, and history is a theory about the event-active content of social being, then culturology is concerned specifically with historical forms of social being, considering it as a set of elements of a cultural-historical type and the content of value systems that regulate these types. As a relatively new scientific discipline, culturology is experiencing the severity of its development.
Today there is no unified theory of culture, the number of existing theories is established by the number of major studies of culture. All a huge variety of teachings and concepts are linked in different scientific directions, which are divided according to the type of any knowledge:
Philosophy of culture, which is defined as the theory of culture in the sense of understanding its essence and meaning;
Cultural history with specific knowledge about cultures;
Sociology of culture, which is interested in the real functioning of culture as a whole, shifts and changes in it, their dynamics and society's reaction to it;
Psychology of culture, studies the personal characteristics of the relationship to culture, the originality of the spiritual behavior of a person within the cultural field.
On the basis of socio-psychological surveys, cultural and historical types of individuals are distinguished. In Western countries, the following became widespread: ethnology, cultural studies, philology and structural-semiotic concepts of culture.
In the most general terms, culturological knowledge is structurally divided into:
1) cultural philosophy;
2) cultural anthropology. ...
1Stages of formation of cultural knowledge
Philosophical - arises in the 7th century BC. e. (7-6 centuries), Within the framework of philosophy, as you know, the very general idea of culture was developed, as well as questions were raised that today constitute the actual cultural theme. At 19, the German philosopher A.G. Müller introduced the concept of “cultural philosophy”, understanding it as an independent branch of philosophy that comprehends culture-Empirical (Ethnographic) -Arises in the second half of the 19th century. At that time, European countries began to colonize various peoples. The culture of these peoples is being studied with the aim of further skillful management of them. Studied: myths, legends, legends. In ethnography, culture becomes an object of special study, where there is a tendency to understand culture as a complex dynamic system that performs specific social functions. Scientific schools have been formed within the framework of ethnography. 1) School of Evolutionists. Representatives: L. Morgan, E. Taylor, Frazor. Evolutionists believed that all peoples go from savagery to barbarism and the final stage of development is civilization. 2) School of Social Anthropology. Formed in England. Representative B. Malinovsky. 3) School of Cultural Anthropology. Formed in the United States at the beginning of the 20th century. Representatives6 A, White, A Boas-The theoretical stage is formed in the early 30s of the 20th century. Culturology is becoming an independent culture. Representatives: Leslie White - applied stage (contemporary)
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2 Subject and structure of cultural studies
Culturology is the science of the essence and forms of manifestation of culture as a specific way of human life, the regularities of its emergence, functioning and development. - the study of society from the point of view of its ability to create conditions for the spiritual creativity of a developed personality. - study of the content and forms of cultural phenomena, their spatio-temporal relationships. - research of culture as one of the technologies of self-organization of society. - studies of the cultural context of various historical phenomena, theories of social systems. The structure of culture In cultural studies, as in sociology, there are two main parts - cultural statics (state of rest) and cultural dynamics (Movement) Cultural statics can be attributed to the internal structure of culture - a set of basic elements or features, and the form of culture.
The dynamics include those means, mechanisms and processes that describe the transformation of culture, its change. As you know, Culture arises, spreads, collapses, persists, a lot of all kinds of metamorphoses take place with it. The structure of culturology 1) Fundamental culturology Purpose: theoretical knowledge of the phenomenon of culture, development of a categorical apparatus and research methods 2) Applied cultural studies (closely related to sociology) Purpose: forecasting, design and regulation of actual cultural processes taking place in social practice Ideas about cultural policy, functions of cultural institutions, goals and methods of activity of the network of cultural institutions, tasks and technologies of socio-cultural interaction, including the protection and use of cultural heritage3) Historical cultural studies (history of culture)
5 The variety of modern approaches to the study of culture
The difficulty of studying culture. The phenomenon of "culture" is due to the diversity. There are different approaches to the study of culture. Informational approach - culture is considered as a socially developed system that provides storage and transfer of social experience presented in the form of information. The informational approach includes: non-verbal. verbal. writing, printing, media, computer technology. Sociological approach - culture in this approach is a way of means and conditions of interconnection between people. This is the system. which regulates the relationship of individuals in society. Social institutions of culture are: schools. institutes, theaters, libraries. The cultural-anthropological approach is at this stage. culture is the second nature, Culture is the living environment of the social community of people. The tasks are to highlight the features of the culture. characteristic of a certain community .. given features. are (traditions, habits, mentality) The biological approach is the essence of the biological approach - the transfer of the laws of development of the natural world to society and man, a representative of this approach was O Spengler. It was considered. that culture develops like any biological organism: it is born, reaches the stage of dawn. and then dies. Sigmund Freud - developed a psychoanalytic concept. Freud believed that a person is governed by an unconscious "it" - which is a biological instinct. There is "Above I" and "It" which, in turn, is divided into "I" - this is a person, personality (eros) or thanatos (desire for death). "Above I" is cultural. And the mechanism of its action is Sublimation, i.e. the transfer of energy to socially significant activities. "IT" is wild, unbridled. A person always has to fight between ... Human culture is called the ability "I" to sublimate. Philosophical approach-Axiology-science of values and value orientations. Semiotic - culture is a sign system. According to Veremiev, the morphology of culture is 1) produced material objects 2) Symbolic products (knowledge, ideas, languages, myths) 3) technologies for the implementation of any purposeful. activities 4) values and value orientations (conscience. humanity, respect. honor. love. spirituality)
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12, Concept of Cultural Dynamics
Dynamics - The system of changes in cultural phenomena in time and space. Tipf Cultures. changes. 1) Cultures. changes are determined by changes in socio-economic and political relations and, accordingly, can be characterized as pre-industrial, post-industrial. 2) Cultural changes can be based on the development of a foreign culture, expressed in a change in spiritual styles. artistic genres and trends, orientations and fashions. 3) .Culture. change can be based on enrichment and cultural deferentiation. 4) Cultural changes can also be based on the simplification of culture, as well as the elimination or loss of some elements. 5) Kul. Change. May be based on transformation or transformation of culture. when her new state arises as a result of changes. The former state is influenced by the renewal process. (The culture of the Renaissance emerged from medieval culture.) 6) Cult. Change. May be based on cultures. stagnation as a long, unchanging, repeatable state of culture. 80 years - Long stagnation 7) Cult. Change. May be based on a cult. crisis, which is characterized by the destruction and weakening of the former spiritual structures and institutions. Formation of new values that meet modern society requirements, Sovrem. culture is the stage of crisis.
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7 Culture and civilization, the relationship of concepts
the term "civilis" originates in dr. Rome (citizen. State) Adam Ferguson introduced the concept of "civilization" in the 18th century. The main scientific approaches of cultural civilization are also distinguished. 1) approach Civilization is related to culture. N. Ya, Danilevsky, about Spengler, And Toinby was the representatives. Civilization is understood as the social organization of social life, covers a long period of existence and is based on a single culture. Samuel Hantinkton identified 15 civilizations in the history of mankind. The first group includes 7 extinct civilizations. (Mesopotamian 4 thousand BC, Egyptian 4 thousand BC, Cretan, Classical (other Greek and other Roman). Byzantine, Central American, Andean). As well as 8 existing civilizations: (Chinese. Japanese, Hindu, Western, Russian-Orthodox, Latin American, African.) 2 approach: Civilization is considered as the technological side of social education. Culture is associated with Art, mythology, religion. the science of man, and is not opposed to civilization. From this we can conclude that culture and civilization are two sides of one. social organism. Representatives were G. Spencer, Max Weber (19th century) E. Tofler (20c). Tofler identified 3 stages - 3 civilizations in the history of mankind Stage 1 Pre-industrial society (agrarian) Traditions were the main life principles Stage 2 Industrial civilization (16-19c) Industrial revolution: the introduction of technology. Stage 3 Postindustrial civilization (70th 20th century) Implementation of Information Technologies. biotechnology., nanotechnology. 3 approach Civilization is a certain stage in the development of society. following barbarism. A. Engels and Karl Marx: signs of Civilization that distinguish it from barbarism: 1) the division of labor into mental and physical. 2) Social-class division of society 3) the presence of the state 4) the presence of writing 5) the presence of cities as centers of culture 6) the presence of commodity production for exchange. 4 approach Civilization is viewed as a social phenomenon opposed to culture. The founder is Emanuel Kant. The ultimate goal of human development is its moral improvement. Culture is free from any selfish utilitarian goal. Civilization requires a person to show only outward upbringing, but at the same time, the actions of a civilized person are based not on a sense of duty, but on formal discipline and can pursue selfish goals.
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19. "Cyclic" and "linear" models of the dynamics of culture.
Dynamics is a system of changes in cultural phenomena in time and space. Models of the dynamics of culture, there are 2 main models of the dynamics of culture: "Cyclic and" Linear ". "Cyclic" is the idea that there are separate cultures, isolated from each other, and each of the cultures goes through a certain circle or cycle of development from birth to death. Representatives: Herodotus, Plato, Aristotle, N. Ya. Danilevsky, O. Spengler. P. Sorokin. A. Toynbee. "Linear" is the idea that there is a single global culture of development. which is an evolutionary path based on universal stages and in accordance with uniform laws. Representatives: Polybius, Karl Marx, K. Jaspers. O. Toffler. The development of culture is a complex dialectical process, which is a unity, as original specific features. and general trends and patterns.
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6 Concept and morphology of culture
The morphological study of culture presupposes the following directions for the study of cultural forms and artifacts: genetic - the generation and formation of cultural forms; microdynamic - the dynamics of cultural forms within the life of three generations (direct transmission of cultural information); historical - the dynamics of cultural forms and configurations on a historical scale of time; structural and functional - the principles and forms of organizing cultural objects and processes in accordance with the tasks of meeting the needs, interests and requests of members of society; technological - the distribution of cultural potential in physical and socio-cultural space and time. According to Veremiev, the morphology of culture is 1) produced material objects 2) Symbolic products (knowledge, ideas, languages, myths) 3) technologies for the implementation of any purposeful. activities 4) values and value orientations (conscience. humanity, respect. honor. love. spirituality) A.а. Veremiev believed that culture is human methods and results. activities focused on ensuring the existence and development of society and man. The morphology of culture in general represents the various forms that make up the existence of culture, and considers the ways of their interaction. These include myth, religion, art, science. Initially, at the stage of primitive culture, these components of the culture existed inseparably. In the course of the development of culture, these forms acquired independence. Within the framework of culturology morphological. the approach is of key importance, since it allows you to identify the ratio of universal characteristics in the structure of def. culture.
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17 typology of culture
Typology of culture - it is carried out on the basis of certain criteria, depending on the chosen criterion or the basis of the classification, various options are possible in identifying types of culture 1) Type of religion (Within the framework of certain religions) carry moral functions at the basis of this culture: - Christian, - Buddhist. –Islamic. 2) Subtypes of the Confucian-Taoist type of culture -China - Judaistic t. K. 3) By region - Far Eastern culture, - Caribbean k. - Siberian k, Latin American k. 4) By type of settlement: - Urban culture, - (Innovative k. conservative, static - female (village) 5) By social subject - by gender, Male (static) female (conservative) By age - children, - adolescents. - youth, up to 35, - subcultures of Middle-aged people, - subculture of people of retirement age 25, - Elderly - after 75, -According to ethnic group (tribes, nationalities, nations) By professional basis (Abundance of professions.) - specialty. - industry 6) By state (more than 200 states) - by citizenship 7) Allocation of types of culture in accordance with the spheres of life of society Material production culture. - Technical and technological culture - production culture. distribution of exchange and consumption of material values. as well as the culture of property relations. _ ecological culture. - Physical culture. In the social sphere of life. - social, - household. - demographic. (Reproduction and migration of the population). - culture of family and marriage relations. Political culture. - civil society. - legal culture Spiritual culture. - philosophical and worldview k. - religious k .. - scientific k. (Scientific creativity, etiquette, design of scientific work. - educational upbringing. Ethical. Aesthetic.
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8 Culture and global problems of our time.
Tofler wrote that scientifically. the technical process led to the crisis of the civilization of culture, the essence of which is in the violation of the mechanisms of adaptation of man and nature to the ongoing changes. This situation is interpreted as "alienation" "alienation" is a process of transformation of various forms and results of human activity and an independent force that dominates a person. At the level of civilization, alienation is manifested in the global problems of our time. 1) demographic problem 2) Economic problem, the problem of biosphere degradation 3) energy negative tendencies of scientific and technological development. The problem of man-made disasters. 4) Confrontation along the "West" - "East" axis. 5) The problem of international terrorism. 6) Lack of uniform programs for solving planetary problems, alienation at the cultural level. It manifests itself in the crisis of the person himself., Namely: ~ The person's feeling of his powerlessness in front of the external forces of life. ~ The idea of the absurdity of their existence. the loss of mutual obligations by people to observe the social order, as well as the denial of the dominant system of values ~ Feeling of loneliness. exclusivity of a person from public relations ~ Loss of an individual of his Self - destruction of personality. In 60-70 of the 20th century, the international organization of scientists "Club of Rome" organized all these problems and sent their reports to all international organizations and national governments. Representatives of A. Picheev: E Toffler. I sent reports so that everyone would understand what is happening with a modern person. They talked. what is needed is a consolidation of financial. scientific, political efforts of all countries to solve these problems. The Club of Rome believed that the way out of the impasse lies in the ability to develop indicators from quantitative to qualitative, when the highest goal of development should be human development. True development must be projected onto the person himself. His inner qualities. t. To the person today acts as the main regulator of life on the planet .. in their opinion, such certain qualities should be (1. Understanding of globality 2. Striving for justice 3. Aversion to violence. 4. Talerance (mutual tolerance) 4 qualities have been developed in the documents of this organization These qualities constitute the culture of the new “humanism.” Which corresponds to the global civilization of UNESCO Dialogue of cultures is a specific form of social interaction based on freedom and mutual respect of students in it, directed clarification of rapprochement and mutual enrichment of position. These are not only humanitarian contacts at the highest level, but also ways of acquiring a separate personality to the spiritual world of other cultural formations.
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18 Historical typology of culture
Historical Typology of culture distinguish tact approaches such as: 1) Civilizational-we see types of K. by civilization. Danilevsky identified 8 historical and cultural types. Spengler-10, A. Toynbee-! 0, Huntington - 15. 2) stage: Tofler identified 3 stages in the history of mankind. 3) Formation (the authors of the approach Marx and Engels) identified 5 Formations - primitive communal, - Slave owner. .- Feudal -. Capitalist, -Communist formation 4) Epochal (in accordance with historical stages. 1) primitive society (primitive culture) 40-35 thousand years. Back. 2) Culture of the Ancient World (4 thousand BC) 3) The era of the Middle Ages, medieval culture (5th early 17th centuries) - Byzantine K. - Arab medieval K. - European medieval K. - Old Russian K. - K , European Renaissance (15th early 17th centuries) –Culture of the New Time (2nd half of the 17th century. 20s of the 20th century) –Culture of the modern time)
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9 The problem of mentality in the history of scientific thought
N. A. Berdyaev used the concept of "the soul of the Russian people" and his self-awareness. Emotionality is a Russian person, while Westerners are irrational. Inconsistency. Thinking in extremes (Russian) P, N, Milyukov -20 c. Start. Historian "People's consciousness, this term was used by him. Likhachev used the term "national character" in his article "one cannot get away from oneself" 1) The contradictory nature of the Russian national character 2) Gullibility (but far from frivolity) 3) The Russian mind is by no means bound by everyday worries; in the world in the deepest sense. 4) High power of self-sacrifice, gambling. The problem of mentality in the history of scientific thought The term "mentality" comes from the Latin "mens", which translates as "mind", "way of thinking", "mentality", "mentality". Scientists today distinguish the following fundamental features of the mentality: 1) - people's understanding and experience of the surrounding reality; 2) Habits; 3) style of thinking; 4) Attitude towards values. The main social role of mentality is that it acts as a psychological factor that determines the behavior of a social subject. Mentality is, inherent in an individual or a certain social community, a set of a specific mindset and feelings, value orientations and attitudes, ideas about the world and about himself, beliefs, opinions and prejudices. It is believed that in science, in the middle of the 19th century, the term "mentality" was introduced by L. Mevy-Bruhl. 1. Berdyaev used the concept of "the soul of the Russian people" and "its self-consciousness." PN Milyukov used the term "people's self-consciousness", and said that it was given from time immemorial and is not subject to introspection. 3. Eric Fromm: used the term "social character". It determines the way people think, feelings. 4. Carl Gustav Jung introduced the concept of "collective unconscious". The content of the "collective unconscious" is made up of archetypes. (Archetypes are, inherited from the tarnished centuries of our past, ideas and feelings that find expression in myths, beliefs, fairy tales. (Jung's definition)) 5. Osfald Spendler used the terms "soul" and "worldview". 6. D.S. Likhachev used the term "national character".
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53. "West" as a type of culture ".
Antiquity (11th century BC-5th century) 1) Antique Form of ownership. which represents the unity of states. the principle of ownership. 2) Intensive development (internal reserves, internal conditions) accelerated types of development of private property. 4) Innovation. 5) Religious Mythological. consciousness coexists with the rational. 6) democratic forms of government. ?) Extroverted personality type. (Focused on external activity, on changes in society and nature.) 8) The first ruler among equals "PrimusinterPares" In ancient times In Western culture, such value attitudes were formed as: 1) individualism, 2) Pragmatism, prudence 3) Rationalism - trust in reason. From the 15th to 17th centuries the development of technological civilization in the West begins, thanks to which the following values of the West were established: 1) Dynamism, orientation towards novelty. 20 Rationality, dignity and respect for humanity. personality, individualism. Setting on the autonomy of the individual and the recognition of the personal principle as a priority in relation to the collective. ideals of freedom and equality. 5) Preferred. Democracy before any form of government. The ideals of the Western type of culture yavl. a free person with pressure, onslaught. The West was geographically formed in Western Europe and North America.
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ten . Formation factors and features of mentality as a form of consciousness .
Features of mentality as a form of consciousness 1) Mentality emphasizes the specific features of a certain type of culture. 2) the psychological factor that determines the behavior and judgments of the subject 3) The mentality is formed under the influence of 2 factors of natural and social. Social Factor - social conditions of the subject's life: the system of economic and political relations. The structure of social relations, religion. Mentality is a historically conditioned phenomenon. The mentality has a more stable character in comparison with the conscious forms of consciousness (science and ideology) Ideology is a systematic view of the development of society. During periods of the most qualitative transformations in society, it can play a conservative and even reactionary role. The mentality is rooted in the unconscious depths of the human psyche and its carriers can, manage to realize its content only at the cost of special efforts. It can be said that one of the formation factors is education Cultural factor. A person draws conclusions for himself from the culture of his country, relying on legends from childhood. fairy tales of tradition. Natural (landscape, climatic, biospheric) factors play a certain role in the formation of the mentality of the national culture. It is no coincidence that the great Russian historian V. Klyuchevsky begins his "Course of Russian History" with an analysis of Russian nature and its influence on the history of the people: it is here that the beginnings of the national mentality and national character of Russians are laid. The Russian plain and its soil structure, the river network and the interfluve, the forest and the steppe, the river and the endless field, all this formed the worldview of the Russian people, and the type of predominant economic activity, and the nature of agriculture, and the type of statehood, and relationships with neighboring peoples (in particular , nomadic peoples and fantastic folklore images, and folk philosophy Mentality according to Pushkarev from his article 1) The connection of man with nature 2) The irrational world. 3) The spiritual world. Lakhova in her article shows the contradictions between the Western and Eastern mentality, opposing such qualities as individuality-collectivism, utilitarianism-love for the homeland, hope for oneself-gullibility, defending one's interest-self-sacrifice, calculation / rationality-emotionality, purposefulness-agility.
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16. Social functions of culture.
1) Educational - human, creative 2) Cognitive culture is mastered and expressed in the process and results of cognition of the surrounding world. This result of cognition is the cultural picture of the world of the subject. 3) the translational function, or the function of transferring the development of society. there is a selection of significant achievements (cultural values of previous generations, the protection and preservation of the national heritage. 4) Communicative - (Communication) In culture, communication channels (mass media) are also developed. 5) Axiological - Culture is a certain hierarchy of values, the orientation of which allows a person to be adopted in society. 6) Reactionary - the function of removing the direction.
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11. The cultural picture of the world and its components
cultural picture of the world - there is a world presented in a semantic meaning for a certain social community and individual. COMPONENT OF THE CULTURAL PATTERN OF THE WORLD 1) Ontological categories - in which the idea of the most common attributes of the surrounding objective world is expressed (space, time, movement. Cause, effect, change, property, quantity, quality, randomness. Regularity.) 2) Social categories - characterizing a person in society is the most important circumstance in people's lives, their relationship, the spiritual world (labor, property, power, church, money, justice, equality, kindness, conscience, duty) 3) The system of value relationships and value orientations. In every cultural picture of the world. Personalities. people or historical epoch develops its own hierarchy of values and value dimensions (family. love. friendship. money). In the Middle Ages, morality and religiosity were values. In modern times - values - rationality, science. The newest time is observed A rigidly pragmatic approach to everything. CCM in developed cultures (especially in the modern era) is multi-layered and polyvariant. It includes a wide variety of knowledge and ideas. scientific, philosophical, scientific, everyday, psychological. In accordance with the dominance of one or another of the listed components, the following types and types are distinguished. There are different pictures of the world: 1) scientific Ph.D. (for example, when a person is sick, he goes to a doctor.) 2) Philosophical Ph.D. 3) Artistic CM. 4) religious c.m. (Belief in the supernatural) 4) ordinary c.m. 5) Mythological c. M. (The presence of a ceremony)
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13 Culture and nature, Ecological culture.
The main stages of the development of ecological culture 1) Since the formation of the primitive community (40-35 thousand years ago) -Upper border of the 15th century: (-primary society. -Ancient civilizations, - up to the 15th century. Earlier and classical. Middle Ages) Man almost completely obeyed nature and its life was determined by the characteristics of the habitat. 2) 15th century - early 20th century. After the end of World War I, Spengler wrote "The Decline of Europe" after the Industrial Revolution. new geographical discoveries began. This is the period when man strove to become master over nature and its laws. Human existence is increasingly determined by the development of an artificial environment. Gradually, the entire biosphere became involved in human life, as a result of which the organisms of the biosphere existing for millions of years were disrupted. 3) A person sets himself the task of Conscious harmonization, namely, a violation of natural balance. All this suggests a trace. Main activities Rational use of natural resources Widespread nature protection Reasonable regulation of natural processes, their preservation, restoration, improvement. Formation of ecological consciousness. Formation of such a system of value orientations that provides an understanding of environmental problems, the formation of a responsible attitude to nature and life on the planet.
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14 Man as a unity of natural and cultural.
Man is a unity of natural and cultural. Natural beginning - Natural or (vital, primary) needs. Cultural beginning - ways and results of implementation, or satisfaction of both biological and social needs. The main positions in the history of social thought, regarding the relationship between natural and cultural principles in a person. I would like to analyze the question posed about the representation of the unity of cultural and natural, based on the opinions of some thinkers. 1) Plato and Aristotle saw in the cultural beginning of man - the good. The Kiniks considered culture to be "smoke." which must be dispelled in order to reveal in man his true essence 2) Jean-Jacques Rousseau - believed that man by nature perverts what is given to him by nature. 3) Marquis de Sade - believed that man is by nature cruel and selfish. human nature is sinful and cursed and cannot be improved. Therefore, living conditions should not prevent the manifestation of his lasting passions. 4) Nietzsche believed that man, to his own detriment, moved away from nature, from natural drives, the basis of which is the "life instinct" or "will to power." He singled out such groups as: Superhumans "blond beast" People who are not able to realize the will to power Creative people who are able to realize themselves. For these people everything comes from Christianity. Thus, in cultural studies it is believed that a person is a unity of natural and cultural. And human development is a process of constant processing of his natural qualities by culture.
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47 In recent years, Western and Russian literature has been discussing the nature of conflicts and wars in a multipolar world. The most popular was the concept of the American political scientist S. Huntington, put forward in his article The Clash of Civilizations. Its main motive was the thesis that if the 20th century was century of the clash of ideologies, then the 21st century is the century of the clash of civilizations. At the same time, X. considers the end of the Cold War as a historical milestone dividing the old world, where national contradictions prevailed, and the new world characterized by the clash of civilizations. X.'s main thesis is as follows: " the world after the cold war, the most important differences between peoples are not ideological, political. or economy. but cultural ones. ”People begin to identify themselves not with the state, but with a broader cultural education-civilization, because civilizational differences are more fundamental than political or ideological. says that religion divides people more than ethnicity. You can be half-French and half-Arab, but it is much more difficult to be half-Catholic and half-Muslim. H. singles out 6 modern. civilizations - Hindu, Islamic, Japanese, Orthodox, Chinese, Western. In addition to them, he considers it possible to talk about two more civilizations - African and Latin American. The appearance of the emerging world, says H., will be determined by the interaction and clash of these civilizations. It is they who will become dominir. factor of world politics. states that the next world war, if it breaks out, will be a war between civilizations, and the most significant conflicts of the future will unfold along the fault line between civilizations. X. asserts that the division of the world into the first second and third will rest on the sidelines, and it is much more appropriate to group countries based on cultural and civilization criteria. So, X believed that civilization is a cultural community with its own characteristics, name-language, history, religion. It can cover both a large mass of people and be very small. According to the X scheme, the rule of the West comes to an end, to the world Several non-Western states are emerging that reject Western values and defend their own values and norms.
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15. Socialization and inculturation of personality
Inculturation- entering a culture, a process during which an individual learns the traditional ways of thinking and acting, characteristic of the culture (society) to which he belongs. The process of Inculturation begins with the birth of a person and lasts until death. The purpose of Inculturation is to form a culturally competent personality. Cultural competence is a specific state of a person in relation to society, in many respects similar in its social adequacy, but to a greater extent tied to the hierarchy of values and parameters of social experience in effect about society and the parameters of social experience, expressed primarily in knowledge of a humanitarian nature We can say that cultural competence is refinement parameters of social adequacy. The main criteria for the cultural competence of an individual: 1) Competence in relation to the laws (written documents) -economic, spiritual and social society. 2) Competence in relation to national and class traditions, morality, value criteria, norms of etiquette. 3) Competence in relation to the currently relevant areas of social. prestige:. to fashion. style. symbols, regalia. 4) Competence is also expressed in the level of proficiency in the languages of social communication. natural conversation., special languages and social jargon, language etiquette, ethnographic and political symbols. Mastering the norms of cultural competence. As you know, it is almost impossible to master the language perfectly. Places of residence come from social contacts of the environment in the process of education and, above all, humanitarian. Acculturation is a partial assimilation of the traditions and values of a foreign culture. Assimilation is a complete immersion in a foreign culture. This means that the individual howled all the traditions and values of his native culture.
Socialization is the entry of an individual into society, or is it the process of mastering social relationships and social institutions by an individual. The goal of Socialization is the formation of a socially adequate personality. Social Adequacy is one of the most false states of a person in relation to society. the essence of which is that his judgments and actions correspond to social formation to the least extent causes tension with society, which makes it possible to single out a given person as deserving a positive public assessment.
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20. Elite and everyday culture. Since the disintegration of primitive society, the beginning of the division of labor, social stratification in human collectives and the formation of the first urban civilizations, a differentiation of culture has arisen, determined by the difference in the social functions of different groups of people associated with their way of life, material resources and social benefits, as well as the emerging ideology and symbolism social prestige. Elite culture (from the French elite - selected, selected, best) is a type of culture characterized by the production of cultural values, samples ,. It includes fine art, classical music and literature. Creators of elite culture, as a rule, do not count on a wide audience. To understand these works, one must master the special language of art. The elite in the economy has the levers of power. The elite in culture are people who have the ability to create, as well as who have moral and ethical standards of behavior and values, who are aware of their responsibility for the creation they have created. There are 2 elements in elite culture: 1) creativity. 2) A person must be a moral and ethical and highly moral person. The significance of the Elite culture is very great. It creates a moral and intellectual image of society. Spiritual values. Elite culture carries an educational and aesthetic element. Contains moral, spiritual values, multiplying the actual at all times. Ideologues of Elite culture (Ortego y Gasset, Nietzsche “the birth of a person from the sound of music” Ordinary culture is a reduced, or even an amateur level of high culture. This is the mastery of the customs of everyday life of the social and national environment in which a person lives. The process of mastering ordinary culture is called in science the general socialization and inculturation of the individual. Everyday culture encompasses a small volume of the world (microcosm). A person masters it from the first days of life - in the family, in communication with friends. Through close spontaneous contacts, he masters those skills, knowledge and stereotypes of behavior that in the future they serve as a basis for familiarizing with a specialized culture.In everyday culture there are also institutional forms of interaction, for example, amateur art circles, collectors 'clubs, young technicians' circles, etc. But here people go in for sports, science, inventions, amateur arts, not on a professional level. So, everyday culture is a profane level of people's participation in professional culture, i.e. e. dilettante, ignorant, incompetent.
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54. "East" as a type of culture.
Dr. East (4 thousand BC) 1) Asian mode of production State ownership of land and communal land use. 2) Extensive character. Development at the expense of external reserves. 3) Earth-making rates of development. 4) Dominance on tradition. reliance on traditions and ancestors. 5) The unlimited dominance of religion, mythological knowledge. 6) Despicable forms of government. 7) Introverted personality type. (Internal passive self-contemplation.) 8) Charismatization of the ruler's personality. Value attitudes of the East. 1) TRADITIONISM - Orientation on the reproduction of the prevailing social. The structures of a lifestyle that have remained unchanged for centuries. The tradition of the ancestors is seen as the authority of the ancestors, the elders. The elders are the bearers of tradition. 2) The dominance of religious mythological concepts. 3) The public and the natural are perceived as something one continuous and harmonious. Society is characterized by a special type of environmental consciousness, the basic principles are not a violation of the natural balance. the concept of nature includes the concept. human nature, which explains the enormous attention that in these cultures is paid to the person himself, his physical condition and improvement, opportunities. regulation of physical activity. All these problems are much more developed in the system of Eastern religions than in European philosophy and religion 4) Man is absolutely free. he is predetermined in his actions and destiny. cosmic laws. The symbol of Eastern culture. The man in the boat was carrying oars. Moral volitional attitude of the Eastern person: creativity. serenity with mystical unity with natural and supernatural forces .. In Eastern culture, the ideology of individualism is alien. Social life is built on the principles of collectivism: family, clan, kla, caste, class. community. The community team determines and controls all aspects of a person's life. Moral actions are spiritual priorities. The form and nature of work. The state absolutely prevails over society. The state regulates the diversity of human relations. forms social ideals.
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57. culture- both the process and the result of the mutual influence of different cultures in which all or part of the representatives of one culture (recipient) adopt the norms, values and traditions of another (donor). In the process, both or more interacting cultures act as the culture of the donor and recipient, although the degree of their influence on each other may not be the same. Today the process of acculturation is studied at the level of individual behavior. In the process of acculturation, each person solves 2 problems: strives to preserve his cult. identity and is included in a foreign culture. Hence, 4 possible options for the strategy of accult: 1) assimilation-human completely adopts a foreign culture 2) separation-denial of a foreign culture while preserving his own identity 3) marginalization-at the same time loss of the identity of his own culture and the absence of identity with the culture of the majority 4) integration-identity with both the old and the new culture. Factors affecting the character of accult. 1degree of differentiation of the host culture-general disposition times twisted systems of morality, law, artistic culture, aesthetics are able to adapt the functional methods of innovation without undermining their spiritual structure. interaction-situation is watered and economical. Dominance or dependence largely determines the content of cultural communication.
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21.Social functions of mass coolers.
Standardization, simplification, non-leveling - these three words go through all aspects of m.c. The origins of the widespread dissemination of mass culture in the modern world lie in the commercialization of all social relations. The desire to see a product in the sphere of spiritual activity, combined with the powerful development of mass media, led to the creation of a new phenomenon - mass culture. She is deeply commercial. A predetermined commercial setting, conveyor production - all this in many respects means transferring to the sphere of artistic culture the same financial-industrial approach that reigns in other branches of industrial production. In addition, many creative organizations are closely associated with banking and industrial capital, which initially predetermines them (be it cinema, design, TV) for the release of commercial, cash, and entertainment works. In turn, it perceives this culture - it is a mass audience of large halls, stadiums, millions of viewers of television and movie screens. In social terms, mass culture forms a new social stratum, called the "middle class". The concept of "middle class" has become fundamental in Western culture and philosophy. This "middle class" also became the backbone of the life of an industrial society. He also made popular culture so popular. Popular culture mythologizes human consciousness, mystifies real processes taking place in nature and in human society. There is a rejection of the rational principle in the mind. The goal of mass culture is not so much to fill leisure and relieve tension and stress in a person of industrial and post-industrial society, but to stimulate consumer consciousness in the recipient (that is, the viewer, listener, reader), which in turn forms a special type - passive, uncritical perception of this culture in humans. All this creates a personality that is quite easy to manipulate. In other words, there is a manipulation of the human psyche and the exploitation of emotions and instincts of the subconscious sphere of human feelings.
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25. Cultural regiment and governing bodies of the cult. processes
CULTURAL POLICY, a system of practical activities, funded, regulated and largely implemented by the state, aimed at preserving, developing and enhancing the cultural heritage of the nation. This is the direction of state policy related to the planning, design, implementation and maintenance of the cultural life of the state and society. Each country has its own administrative structures designed to promote cultural development. In the 60s and 70s. in many countries ministries of culture appeared, the scope of which was mostly limited to only a few areas. For example, in India, cultural management is divided between the Ministry of Education (with a Culture Bureau), the Ministries of Information and Broadcasting, Tourism, Public Works, Housing, Agriculture (with a Department of Community Development), Trade and Crafts. The broad understanding of culture, adopted by many governments, includes education, media, tourism, social services, and youth education. It is obvious that the management of such different and wide areas is carried out by different departments. Therefore, to coordinate their activities, liaison committees between government departments or parliamentary commissions are created.
Along with the nationwide. Institution a significant place in cultural life is occupied by non-governmental organizations, both national and international. Various kinds of communities, writers and journalistic organizations, various creative groups and associations, private publishing houses, film studios, museums, etc. create a wide network by providing. cultures. activities of the country.
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22. The main forms of modern m. To.
Among the main manifestations and directions of mass culture of our time, the following can be distinguished: - the industry of "subculture of childhood" (works of art for children, toys, children's clubs and camps, paramilitary and other organizations, kindergartens) Their goal is to educate children on the basis of basic values ... attitudes promoted in this society. - mass general education school (closely related to 1). She introduces students to the basics of scientific knowledge, philosophical and religious ideas about the world around them to the value orientations adopted in the community, while this knowledge is simplified for children's consciousness and understanding and is based on the typical programs of this society. - Mass media (print and electronic), broadcasting current relevant information to the general population, "explaining" to an ordinary person the meaning of events, judgments and actions of figures from various specialized spheres, but presenting this information in the "necessary" angle for the customer, i.e. actually manipulating the consciousness of people and shaping public opinion on certain problems in the interests of its customer. - a system of national (state) ideology and propaganda of "patriotic" education, etc., which controls and forms the political and ideological orientations of the population and its individual groups (for example, political and educational work with the military), manipulating the consciousness of people in the interests of the ruling elites - mass political movements (party and youth organizations, manifestations, demonstrations, propaganda and election campaigns, etc.), the main goal of which is to involve in polit. actions of broad strata of the population very far from the political interests of elites, by means of forcing political, nationalistic, religious or other psychosis. - mass social mythology (national chauvinism and historical "patriotism", social demagogy, populism, quasi-religious and parascientific teachings and movements, "idolism "," spy mania "," witch hunt ", rumors, gossip, etc.), which replaces the analysis of complex multifactorial causal relationships with simple, usually fantastic explanations (world conspiracy, intrigues of foreign special services," drums ", Aliens). This frees people from efforts to rationalize the problems that concern them, gives an outlet to emotions in their most infantile manifestation; - the entertainment industry, which includes mass art culture, mass staged and spectacular performances (from sports and circus to erotic), structures for organizing recreational activities (clubs, discos, dance floors, etc.) ) and other types of shows. The consumer is not only a spectator, but also a participant. The content of these views is simplified, adapted to undemanding tastes and the needs of the mass consumer. Mass art. culture achieves the effect of mental relaxation, often through a special aestheticization of the vulgar, ugly, brutal, physiological. - the recreational leisure industry, (resort industry, mass physical culture movement, bodybuilding and aerobics, sports tourism, as well as a system of medical, pharmaceutical, perfumery and cosmetic services to correct appearance). It enables a person to "correct" his appearance in accordance with the current fashion for the type of image, strengthens a person not only physically, but also psychologically (raises his confidence in his physical endurance) - the industry of intellectual leisure ("cultural" tourism, amateur performances, circles by interests, intellectual games, quizzes, crosswords, etc.), introducing people to popular science knowledge, scientific and artistic amateurism. - system of organization, stimulating. and consumer management. demand (advertising, fashion, image-making, etc.), forms the standards of prestigious images, lifestyles, interests, needs. - dictionaries, reference books, encyclopedias, catalogs, electronic. and other banks of information, special knowledge, the Internet, etc., designed for mass consumers.
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23. Cultural policy: goal and main directions
Cultural policy (state policy in the field of cultural development) is a set of principles and norms that govern the state in its activities for the preservation, development and dissemination of culture, as well as the very activity of the state in the field of culture. This is the direction of state policy related to planning, design, implementation and maintenance of the cultural life of the state and society. State management activities include: - a system of search, taking on protection, restoration, accumulation and preservation, protection against illegal export, as well as providing access for the study by specialists or enlightenment of the masses of objects of cultural heritage that have value (book-written, architectural-spatial, works of art of various types and unique handicrafts, historical documentary and material rarities, archaeological monuments, as well as protected areas of cultural and historical significance); - a system of state and public support for the functioning and development of artistic life in the country (promoting the creation, demonstration and sale of works of art, their purchases by museums and private collectors, holding competitions, festivals and specialized exhibitions, organizing professional art education, participating in programs for aesthetic education of children, development of arts sciences, professional art criticism and journalism, publication of specialized, fundamental educational and periodical literature of an art profile, economic assistance to art groups and associations, personal social security for art workers, etc.); - a system of building various forms of organized leisure for people (club, hobby and cultural and educational, organization of mass sports and festive carnival shows and events, "cultural and educational" tourism to historical sites and areas, "folk amateur" in the field of artistic or craft creativity. - international and interethnic cultural cooperation, as well as a number of other areas of activity. Agreeing that the state should participate in the formation of such a policy, the researchers identify six main areas, which, in fact, should be aimed at the vector of cultural policy: - Preservation of heritage ( museum collections, historic buildings, painting, music literature, as well as craft skills and folklore); - Dissemination of the cultural product. Funds are used to fund performances, tours, ticket subsidies, broadcasts, publishing, distribution networks or special promotions aimed at expanding the audience; - Creativity (which includes both the work of the creator and any auxiliary personnel involved in cultural production); - Research (and this involves checking the compliance of the current cultural policy with the set goals and objectives); - Personnel training (which provides for the training of creative professionals, administrators and workers in related fields); - Education
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24 .Cultural institutions
CULTURAL POLICY, a system of practical activities, funded, regulated and largely implemented by the state, aimed at preserving, developing and enhancing the cultural heritage of the nation. This is the direction of state policy related to planning, design, implementation and maintenance of the cultural life of the state and society.
The main bodies that plan and make decisions on the direction of cultural policy are public authorities (as a rule, making decisions based on their discussion by experts, as well as the artistic community or elected in the field of art and literature), and the main bodies that implement the cultural policy of the state , are cultural institutions. The latter are relatively clearly divided into institutions that solve the main tasks of cultural policy. For example, institutions dealing with the collection and preservation of cultural heritage are libraries, archives, museums of various profiles, state historical and cultural reserves, etc. , film studios and film distribution institutions, theaters (drama and music), concert structures, circuses, and ideally also publishing and bookselling institutions, secondary and higher educational institutions of an art profile, etc. (unfortunately, in Russia, far from all of the listed cultural institutions administratively fall under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Culture and are centrally controlled by it; in particular, architecture, cinema, literature and the publishing complex are autonomous structures). To date, only clubs and circles, educational societies, and also some tourist organizations have remained institutions of leisure work. The recently highly developed system of organizing children's cultural and educational leisure in Russia has actually degraded. The tasks of social pedagogy are solved mainly in the system of educational institutions, international cultural cooperation is carried out mainly by the central administrative bodies of culture. Research and educational institutions of culture and art play a certain role in the development of cultural policy.
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26. Cultural norms and their types.
All human behavior is primarily the result of learning. From childhood we are taught the rules of behavior, traditions, customs, values. Norms are rules that govern human behavior. They indicate where, how, when and what exactly we should do. The norms prescribe patterns of behavior and are transmitted to the individual in the process of inculturation. Cultural norms are prescriptions, requirements, wishes and expectations of appropriate (socially approved) behavior. Norms are some kind of ideal patterns (templates) that prescribe what people should say, think, feel and do in specific situations. Some norms and rules are limited to private life, others pervade the whole of public life. There are many classifications of norms. For example: 1.Institutional (norms prescribed in documents) 2.Statistical (not spelled out in documents) 3.Convectional (norms born in the process of a social contract, but not having the force of law. They occupy an intermediate position between 1 and 2, in each specific case tending to the first or the second) 4. Reference (ie specially created as a role model, they are created in the field of religion (moral, aesthetic norms) and art) Classification of norms according to Carmine. He identified 1. Generally accepted (general cultural), which apply to all members of the society (rules of conduct in public places). 2. Group norms (they differ in diversity). These are both standards of behavior characteristic of certain social strata and groups, as well as special rules that are established for themselves by any companies, groups, firms, corporations, etc. social position) The most famous classification of cultural norms belongs to the American sociologist William Graham Sumner (1840-1910). He identified the following types of norms: customs, customs, laws. Today, the typology of cultural norms takes into account traditions, customs, habits, customs, taboos, laws, fashion, taste and hobbies, beliefs and knowledge, etc.
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27. Cultural values and their types.
From early childhood, every child learns his native language and assimilates the culture to which he belongs. This happens in the process of communicating with loved ones and strangers, at home. environment through verbal and non-verbal communication. In everyday life practice, a person himself determines the usefulness or harmfulness of various objects and phenomena of the surrounding world from the point of view of good and evil, truth and error, just and unjust. Comprehending the world, a person decides for himself what is important for him in life and what is not, what is essential and what is insignificant, what he can do without, and what not. As a result, his value attitude to the world is formed. Each object receives its own assessment and represents a certain value, on the basis of which the corresponding attitude towards it is formed. Thus, value is determined not so much by the properties of the object as by the properties of the subject, i.e. its relation to the object. Human notions of what values are called value conceptions. Carmine identified the following types of values: 1. Final (the highest values and ideals, more important and meaningful of which there is nothing, they are the final values of human aspirations. They are also called self-values. Without them a decent human life is impossible) 2.instrumental (these are the means and conditions necessary in the final analysis to achieve and maintain the final values) 3.Production. (these are consequences or expressions of other values that have significance only as signs and symbols of the latter (the child's drawing on March 8)) Each person develops a more or less ordered structure of value orientations, i.e. value representations with which he is a landmark. in the world of values and determines which of the values. yavl. more significant to him, and which less.
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28. Functions of cultural norms.
Cultural norms perform very important functions in society.
1. They are duties and indicate the degree of necessity for human actions; 2. Serve expectations about the future action; 3. Control deviant behavior; 4. Serve as models, standards of behavior. On the one hand, norms are the responsibilities of one person towards another or other persons. By prohibiting smoking in institutions, the administration imposes certain obligations on employees and puts them in a certain relationship with their superiors and comrades. Consequently, the norms form a certain system of mutual relations based on rights and obligations.
On the other hand, norms are expectations: from a person observing a given norm, those around them expect quite unambiguous behavior. When some pedestrians move on the right side of the street, and others on the field, an orderly, organized interaction occurs. If the rule is violated, there is a collision and disorder. Therefore, the norms form a system of social interaction, which includes motives, goals, direction of the subjects of action, the action itself, expectation, assessment and means. Social functions of cultural norms according to Carmine: 1. Social (this function is to regulate people's lives, social relationships, unifies the behavior of people, ensuring the uniformity of actions, thus contributing to the maintenance of public order, ensure the safety of people) 2. Technological (represents the procedural rules, methods and programs of activities aimed at obtaining the desired result.
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29. Normative system of culture and factors of development of cultural conflicts.
Cultural norms - represent a unity or system, all parts of which are connected with each other and perform certain functions. But any unity has a contradiction. The normative system of culture is orderly and contains and contains often inconsistent and contradictory norms. The inconsistency and inconsistency is due to the heterogeneity (social heterogeneity) of the society. And then we are talking about a cultural conflict between different ethnic groups (Russians and Caucasians, Americans and Indians), different generations (the conflict between fathers and children), between law-abiding citizens and criminals (values of thieves, criminal culture and dominant norms). When the norms that a person must follow do not agree well, the person finds himself in a situation of choice. Since there are three types of norms (according to Carmine: generally accepted, group, role), then deviant behavior can exist at 3 levels: 1. Violation of generally accepted norms; 2. Violation of group norms; 3. Violation of role norms In certain conditions, contradictions or divergences can intensify and reach conflict. Cultural conflict squeezes a person into desires of conflicting demands, and whatever he does, his life's well-being is questioned. Being one of the reasons for the growth of crime, the conflict of norms at the same time escalates itself (the more people leading a criminal lifestyle become in society, the more common are contacts with them, people get used to their existence, consciously or unconsciously accept their gestures, habits, If, moreover, representatives of criminal structures begin to acquire prestige, then the regulators of their behavior come into conflict with cultural norms.
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30. Anomy as a form of destabilization of the normative system of culture.
The imbalance in the normative system of culture takes many forms. One of them is anomie.
Anomy (from the French anomie - literally lawlessness, lack of norms) is a state of society in which a significant part of the inhabitants, knowing about the existence of the norms that oblige them, treat them negatively or indifferently. Anomy describes the disruption of the cultural unity of a society that has arisen due to the lack of clearly defined social and cultural norms. For E. Durkheim, who introduced this term in the 90s of the XIX century, anomie meant the collapse of a solid system of moral values. The rise in crime, the number of suicides, and the increase in the number of divorces are not so much a cause as a consequence of the destruction of that part of cultural unity that concerns religious and family values.
If for E. Durkheim anomie was a state of abnormality, for R. Merton, who went further than the French sociologist, it served as the result of a conflict of norms in culture. Anomy arises when people cannot legally achieve the goals proclaimed by society as a moral law. Under socialism, the principles of equality and moral interest in labor were officially proclaimed, under capitalism - the goal of individual profit and material success.
But if in either case the majority of the population are legal, ways of achieving these goals are not available, then only illegal ones fall to their lot. Merton has five of them: 1) conformism (acceptance of ends and means); 2) innovation, reformism (acceptance of goals, elimination of funds); 3) ritualism (rejection of goals, acceptance of means); 4) retreatism, withdrawal (rejection of neither goals nor means); 5) rebellion (abandonment of goals and means, replacing them with new goals and means). In an atmosphere of anomie, people lose their orientation, cease to distinguish norms from the regulators of deviant behavior; the latter “enter the norm”, acquire the same widespread application as the norms, as a result of this a sharp increase in deviance, and these phenomena become so common that people cease to be surprised, to perceive them as something abnormal.
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31. Social adequacy and cultural competence of the individual.
The purpose of socialization is the formation of a socially adequate personality, and the purpose of inculturation is the creation of a culturally competent personality. Social adequacy is one of the most difficult states of a person in relation to society, the essence of which is that his judgments and actions correspond to social attitudes, in the least cause tension or conflict with society, which allows you to highlight this person as deserving a positive public assessment. Kultur kompetent. Is a specific state of a person, his attitude to society, in many respects similar to his social adequacy, but to a greater extent tied to the hierarchy of values and the social parameter in operation in the society. experience embodied primarily in knowledge of a general humanitarian nature. Thus, cultural competence is a kind of refinement of the parameters of social adequacy of the individual. Flier identifies 4 components of the cult of competence: 1. Competence in relation to institutional norms(social institutions, economic, political, legal structures, institutions, institutions and hierarchies; 2. Competence in relation to conventional norms ( traditions, morality, morality, worldview, values and evaluative criteria, norms of etiquette, customs, rituals, everyday erudition in social and humanitarian knowledge); 3.Competence in relation to short-term, but urgent models of social prestige(fashion, image, style, symbols, regalia, social status, intellectual and aesthetic trends) 4. Competence, expressed in the level of completeness and freedom of ownership languages of social communication(special languages and social (professional) jargons, languages of etiquette and ceremonial, political, religious, social and ethnographic symbols) Mastering the norms of cultural competence is practically impossible without perfect knowledge of the language of the society of residence. The cultural competence of an individual (as well as social adequacy) is formed in the process of education and social contacts with the environment. in the process of education, especially humanitarian. In general, cultural competence reflects the correspondence of the interests and erudition of the individual to the social experience and value attitudes of the society in which he lives.
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32. Semiotics of culture and typology of signs and sign systems.
Semiotics is the science of signs and sign systems.
Semiotics of Culture is a section of semiotics that studies the patterns of movement and transformation of text and symbolic forms. Among the many cognitive tasks solved by the semiotics of culture, the following can be distinguished:
Comparison of the interactions of the names of cultural phenomena as linguistic units with the same kind of interaction of cultural phenomena as social units and the identification of the similarity of these two types of interactions;
Study of the origin of the names of phenomena and events of culture and the dynamics of their semantic evolution;
Study of non-verbal languages of culture, expressed in systems of facial expressions and plastics, ceremonial, ritual behavior of people, art-figurative works;
Introducing a category like "Cultural text... Under "text" in cultural studies is understood not only a written message, but any object considered as a carrier of information (material, ideal thought, song ...)
The main regularity of the semiotics of culture is that no culture can exist if there is only one semiotic channel, or, in other words, the language of culture; any local culture has many such languages, codes, symbolic systems. The language of any culture is unique. But all cultures use the same types of signs and sign systems. All this variety of sign systems constitutes the semiotic field of culture. There are 5 types of signs and sign systems: -natural signs and sign systems; they mean things and natural phenomena when they point to some other objects and thus are considered as a carrier of information about them (smoke is a sign of fire; the ability to navigate in this environment is characteristic of primitive people) - functional signs and sign systems ; acquires its symbolic property in the process of human activity. Those. it is in the process of people. activity, the property arises to indicate something, some event (archaeologists have found a spear, which means a warrior is buried there). - convection signs and sign systems; they are created specifically to perform a symbolic function (school bell, emblems, stars on shoulder straps), these include: signals, notice or warning signs; indices; images; symbols-signs (coats of arms, orders, banners, Picasso's dove-symbol of peace).
Verbal signs and sign systems - sign systems of writing (writing)
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40. Letter-system for recording signs in the natural language of oral speech. The main stages of development of writing. 1) pictography (writing in figures) 2) ideographic writing (figures are becoming more and more simplified and schematic form) E.g. hieroglyphs 3) alphabetical writing (a relatively small set of written characters is used, meaning not a word but the composition of the sounds of oral speech) The meaning of writing in the cultural-historical process 1) the recording creates the possibility of beings. to increase the vocabulary. 2) with the emergence of writing. linguistic norms and rules begin to take shape, which makes it possible to create a normalized literary language. 3) the number of information circulating in the public increases immeasurably 4) thanks to writing, the quality of information is preserved 5) writing has opened the way to duplicating text, to printing -> conditions have arisen for mass education and enlightenment 6) an important direction in the development of recording systems linguistics was the creation of a formalized language (logic and mathematics) -> it became possible to create electronic computers, cat. Today is the determining factor in the cult.progress of mankind.
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33. Features of natural language as a sign system Natural language: a historically developed sign system that forms the basis of the entire culture, the people speaking it. Culture is learned through language. language that distinguishes it from other sign systems: -phonetics; -lexics; -grammar; -stylistics Due to the richness of meanings, the multitude of metaphors, comparisons, idioms and other stylistic means, the transmission of explicit and implicit meanings, it appears as a universal means of storing and transmitting knowledge, as well as thought formation and communication, suitable for any kind of activity. But this has its own difficulties and disadvantages. Among them - polysemy (So, for the word "is" the logicians identified five meanings: existence, entry into a class, property belonging to an object, identity, equality).
Another feature of natural language is the complexity and ambiguity of grammar, in particular, many exceptions to the rules and a wide variety of the rules themselves. A certain "inconvenience" is the cumbersomeness of its designs, which is clearly seen when comparing, for example, a verbal description and a formulaic expression of algebraic or chemical. patterns. One more feature should be noted, which is not always paid attention to, which can lead to a paradox. In a natural language, as a rule, they do not distinguish between the semantic, or semantic, levels of the language, which can lead to paradoxes. All these features necessitate the creation of a special language based on a natural one, but with different properties, when ordinary words, along with other signs, are deliberately included in created sign systems to denote special knowledge. One of the most important ways of developing a scientific language is the creation of terminological. systems, yavl. a kind of national. literatures. language.
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56. Jaspers Unlike the theory of cultural cycles that was popular in Europe in the 20th century, I assumed the spruce origin of humanity and a single cultural history. Jaspers drew attention to the illegality of biological analogs that are widely used in Spengler's concept. He also rejected the materialistic interpretation of history by Marxism, arguing that in the history of culture a significant role is played not by economic, but by spiritual factors. Jaspers defends the priority of the spiritual component and affirms the unity of history. However, it is impossible to scientifically prove this position, according to Jaspers. He calls the admission of this unity a postulate of faith. Drawing a diagram of world history, Jaspers singles out 4 periods: the Promethean era, the era of the great cultures of antiquity, the axial time and the era of the development of technology
The Promethetian era is the prehistory of mankind, in this era the formation of man as a species took place, the foundation of human existence, its essential foundation was laid. The second period is the great historical cultures of antiquity, they arose almost simultaneously in three regions of the globe. These are the Sumerian-Babylonian and Egyptian cultures and the Aegean the world from 4000 BC, the pre-Aryan culture of the Indus valley and the archaic world of China. features characterizing this period are the presence of writing and specific technical rationalization .. The third period-axial time-is central. in the history of mankind, this is the era of the spiritual foundation of all world cultures. According to Jaspers, this is the time of the birth of world religions, which replaced mythology. consciousness. Man as if for the first time awakened to clear, distinct thinking, there is a rationalization of the attitude to the world and to his own kind.
In order to save the human essence, which is on the verge of death in the 20th century, we must, according to Jaspers, renew the connection with the axial time and return to its originality. the era corresponds in importance to the Promethean, only at a higher level, the creation of fundamentally new information. technologies, the discovery of new sources of E, etc. ______________
34. Historical evolution of language and the method of "linguistic hours"
At all levels of the language, there are norms that determine the structure of speech. People who speak the same language are able to understand each other because they adhere to the same norms. But at the same time, the boundaries of linguistic norms are not rigid. They are flexible and changeable enough to give scope to the imagination and to ensure that the language adapts to innovations arising in culture. When, for example, a fundamentally new idea arises in the mind of a scientist or philosopher, then one of the most difficult tasks for him is the search for linguistic means with which it can be expressed and explained. After all, if the idea is really new, then this means that it cannot be defined or logically deduced from the concepts already existing in the language. As a rule, in order to solve this problem, it is necessary to deviate somewhat from the accepted methods of verbal formulation of thoughts: to invent neologisms, build unusual constructions and phrases that do not fit well into the language of a given time, change the meanings of words. Over time, the norms for the use of the introduced new formations are formed in the language, and they become its full-fledged elements. This is approximately how new scientific terms entered the language: "genes", "unconscious", "waves of probability", "quarks", etc. Natural language is an open system. He is capable of unlimited development. This feature of the language is of great importance for the study of culture. The history of the development of culture is reflected in the history of the development of the language. Language is like a living being. But the evolution of language is not simply a consequence of changes in social life. Despite the changes taking place in the language, it remains the same for centuries and children understand their ancestors, and grandfathers - grandchildren and great-grandchildren. This happens because the language has a vocabulary, which includes all root words. ... They are understandable to all speakers of the given language, are stylistically neutral, are distinguished by a high frequency of use and serve as a source for new word formations.
The researchers noticed that this process of change proceeds evenly, its rate is constant over time and is approximately the same for all languages. This led the American linguist Maurice Swadesh to the idea that historical changes in languages can serve as a kind of "linguistic clock" - like a "radiocarbon clock": by determining the percentage of preserved words of the main fund in the "descendant language", one can find out what period of time separates it from the "parent language". Although the method of "linguistic clock" - it is called "glottochronology" (from the Greek. Glotto - language) - is not as accurate as the radiocarbon method, its application makes it possible to establish the chronological framework of the existence of a culture associated with certain ancient languages
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35. Sociocultural role of natural language
Language is the basis of the culture of the people speaking it.
Being the most important means of communication, language unites people, regulates their interpersonal and social interaction, coordinates their practical activities, participates in the formation of worldview systems and national images of the world, ensures the accumulation and storage of information, including information related to the history and historical experience of the people and personal experience individual, dismembers, classifies and consolidates concepts, forms the consciousness and self-consciousness of a person, serves as a material and form of artistic creativity
Language fulfills two social roles: 1. It acts as a means of thinking; 2. It acts as a means of communication. How 1 performs the following cognitive functions: 1. Nominative (nominative)
3. Accumulative (language is the material in which the results of thinking are recorded and stored)
How 2 performs the following communicative functions:
1.Referential (aimed at the subject of the message and consists in transmitting information about it). The task of the author through speech is to convey adequate information. 2. Expressive (associated with the reflection of the message of the author's personality (about the expression of his attitude to the subject)) 3. Impressive (focused on the addressee of the message, which implies an impact on his state. Expressing his attitude, the author tries to cause adequate reaction) 4.Aesthetic (poetic) refers to the aesthetic properties of messages, especially important for literary texts, works of art)
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37. Culture of speech- the ability to use the communicative functions of the language in the most effective way. This is an evaluative concept that characterizes the degree to which a person speaks a language and is able to realize its expressive impact. The culture of speech is determined by two main factors: 1. Compliance with generally accepted language norms. 2. Features of the individual style of speech. samples, dictionaries and textbooks, rules of grammar, stylistics, pronunciation, word usage and word formation. The main deviations from the correct speech: - colloquial speech - illiterate speech, in which mistakes are made in stress, pronunciation of jargon words - are in circulation in any social group and are mainly characterized by specific vocabulary. Youth jargon (slang) is a kind of game with which they try to show their independence. - dialects, dialects, adverbs - a kind of national language that has historically developed in a particular region and is distinguished by the peculiarities of the linguistic structure, word formation, the construction of phrases. - individual style of speech. - characterized by preferences inherent in a given individual in the use of certain expressive means of language, his manner of presentation, thought and construction of statements, a set of favorite words and expressions, rhythm, phonetics, etc. If adherence to the norms of the literary language ensures the correctness of speech, then the improvement of the speech style also leads to speech mastery and the development of the art of speech.
The main simplest requirements for speech skills: 1. Speak clearly and understandably for the audience 2. Speak as briefly as possible, without compromising clarity and comprehensibility 3. Choose the most vivid and emotional means of expressing your thoughts 4. Do not try to make the listeners agree with you on everything 5. Do pauses to collect thoughts, draw the attention of the audience to important points, give them the opportunity to think about what has been said. Try to control the reaction of the listeners and catch it.
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36. Functions of language as a sign system
The language that a person uses in everyday communication is not only a historically established form of culture that unites human society, but also a complex sign system. Understanding the sign properties of the language is necessary in order to better understand the structure of the language and the rules for its use. The words of the human language are signs of objects and concepts. Words are the most numerous and main signs in the language. Other units of the language are also signs. A sign is a substitute for an object for the purpose of communication, a sign allows the speaker to evoke an image of an object or concept in the mind of the interlocutor.
Language fulfills two social roles: 1. Acts as a means of thinking 2. Acts as a means of communication
How 1 performs the following cognitive functions: 1. Nominative (nominative)
2.Constructive (words are constructed into sentences, the latter into texts, this is how people build virtual communication, this way people describe and explain reality)
3. Accumulative (language is a material in which the results of thinking are recorded and stored) How 2 performs the following communicative functions: 1. Referential (aimed at the subject of a message and consists in transmitting information about it). The task of the author through speech is to convey adequate information. 2. Expressive (associated with the reflection of the message of the author's personality (about the expression of his attitude to the subject)) 3. Impressive (focused on the addressee of the message, which implies an impact on his state. Expressing his attitude, the author tries to cause adequate reaction) 4.Aesthetic (poetic) refers to the aesthetic properties of messages, especially important for literary texts, works of art)
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38. The problem of time perception in the theory of intercultural communication.
The features of the pace and rhythm of life, the flow of time in the theory of intercultural communication are studied by chronology. One of Hall's most important cultural differences is the distinction between monochrome and polychrome perception and use of time. Monochrome perception of time means that in the same period of time only one type of activity is possible, actions, and they are carried out sequentially, one after another. The polychrome perception of time implies that several things can be done simultaneously during a certain period of time, which gives rise to different types of behavior in different situations. Industrialized countries (Germany, USA) are representatives of monochrome culture. Polychrome culture is typical for the countries of Latin America, the Middle East, the Mediterranean, Russia
Differences between representatives of monochrome and polychrome cultures: representatives of monochrome culture are rather closed, collected, concentrated on their work, comply with all agreements, do not like to be distracted from work, are responsible, punctual, maintain mainly short-term interpersonal contacts, respect other people's property, sharply occupy and lend (Northern Europe, USA, Germany) Representatives of a polychrome culture interrupt work more often, attach less importance to agreements and meetings, often and easily change their plans, are more interested in a person and his personal affairs than in work, often borrow and lend , punctuality depends on interpersonal relationships, slopes establish lifelong relationships.
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39. Verbal illusionism as a characteristic feature modern culture Verbal illusionism is the most significant problem of the manifestation of the influence of language on the thinking of people. This problem lies in the ability to create verbal illusions, which become factors that determine the behavior of people. In the minds of people, a verbal world appears, which concludes and replaces reality. The main forms of verbal illusion: 1. Illusory knowledge - formed from early childhood 2. Various social stereotypes - simplified and standardized ideas about any phenomena, people, social groups. The national stereotype is especially widespread3. Conferences, discussions taking place in our time; conversations that do not lead to any real action.4 Verbal cliches - especially applicable during elections VERBAL ILLUSIONS - a substitution of knowledge of the essence A widespread, although little understood verbal illusion is illusory knowledge. Its formation begins in early childhood. When a child asks about something: "What is this?", He gets answers: "This is an ant", "This is a TV." What knowledge does he gain from these answers? Obviously, he does not receive full knowledge of the essence of the subject to which the question was related. The only knowledge he acquires is the knowledge of the name of the object. But, if then he is asked: "Do you know what this is?" - he can proudly say: "Of course I know! It's an ant (TV)." Knowledge of the name is taken as knowledge of the subject! So imperceptibly we fall into the captivity of words and, growing up, we continue to live in this captivity. Unfortunately, at the level of human participation in cosmic evolution, IZs are already playing a huge negative role. They are imperceptibly present in many scientific models and are a latent problem that has not been resolved for centuries. Due to this, today it is the IZ, which are the basis of science, that have become the cause of the crisis in natural science and a brake on the rational and progressive development of mankind.
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49.Danilevsky being the ideologist of the Pan-Slavic movement, which proclaimed the unity of the Slavic peoples, long before Spengler, in his work, Russia and Europe substantiated the idea of the existence of cultural and historical types, which, like living organisms, are in a continuous struggle with each other and the environment. The main criterion for distinguishing types is linguistic proximity, and the cultural-historical types themselves are understood as a combination of psycho-logical, anthropological, social, territorial and other characteristics. Just like biological individuals, they go through the process of birth, flourishing and death. The beginning of a civilization of one historical type is not transmitted to peoples of another type, although they are subjected to certain cultural influences. Each cultural-historical type manifests itself in 4 spheres of religious, cultural, political and socio-economic. Their harmony speaks of the perfection of a particular civilization. The course of history is expressed in the change of cultural and historical types displacing each other, passing the way from ethnography state through statehood to a civilizational level. Denying the existence of a single world culture, Danilevsky singled out 10 cultural and historical types (Egyptian, Chinese, Assyrian-Babylonian - Phoenician, Indian, Iranian, Greek, Roman, Arabian, Jewish, European) partially or completely One of the later became the European cultural community. Qualitatively new and having a great historical perspective D, proclaims the Slavic cultural and historical type, designed to unite the Slavic peoples at the head of Russia, as opposed to Europe. .e. in them, with a combination of elements, some kind of one Nr prevails in the European-religious, Juventus antique-cultural. And only the Slavic type with its Orthodoxy, cultural self-sufficiency, autocracy and the peasant community is destined to become a complete four-basic cultural-historical type.
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41. Type of civilizations - methodological concept, used for the largest division of the cultural and historical development of mankind, which makes it possible to designate specific features characteristic of many societies. the basis of typologization is 4 main criteria 1. common fundamental features of spiritual life 2. community and interdependence of historical and political fate and economic development 3. intertwining cultures 4. the presence of common interests and common tasks from the point of view of development prospects. On the basis of these criteria, four main types of civilization are distinguished:
1) natural communities (non-progressive forms of existence); 2) the eastern type of civilization; 3) Western type of civilization; 4) the modern type of civilization. Natural communities. This is a type of non-progressive form of existence, which includes historical communities that live within the natural annual cycle, in unity and harmony with nature. The peoples belonging to this type of civilization exist outside of historical time. In the public consciousness of these peoples, there is no concept of the past and the future. For them, there is only the current time and the mythical time in which the gods and souls of deceased ancestors live. These peoples have adapted to their environment to the extent necessary to maintain and reproduce life. They see the purpose and meaning of their existence in maintaining a fragile balance between man and nature, in preserving established customs, traditions, methods of labor that do not violate their unity with nature. The eastern type of civilization (eastern civilization) is historically the first type of civilization, formed by the 3rd millennium BC. NS. in the Ancient East: in Ancient India, China, Babylon, Ancient Egypt. The characteristic features of the Eastern civilization are: 1. Traditionalism - an orientation towards the reproduction of established forms of lifestyle and social structures. 2. Low mobility and poor variety of all forms of human life. 3. In terms of the worldview, the idea of the complete lack of freedom of a person, the predetermination of all actions and deeds, forces of nature, society, gods, independent of him, etc. 4. Moral volitional attitude not to cognition and transformation of the world, but contemplation, serenity, mystical unity with nature, focus on the inner spiritual life. 5. The personal principle is not developed. Social life is built on the principles of collectivism. 6. The political organization of life in Eastern civilizations takes place in the form of despotism, in which the absolute predominance of the state over society is realized. 7. The economic basis of life in Eastern civilizations is the corporate and state forms of ownership, and the main method of management is coercion. The Western type of civilization (Western civilization) is a systematic characteristic of a special type of civilizational development, which includes certain stages of the historical and cultural development of Europe and North America. The main values of the Western type of civilization, according to M. Weber, are the following: 1) dynamism, orientation towards novelty; 2) affirmation of dignity and respect for the human person; 3) individualism, an attitude towards individual autonomy; 4) rationality; 5) ideals of freedom, equality, tolerance; 6) respect for private property; 7) preference for democracy to all other forms of government. Western civilization at a certain stage of development acquires the character of a technogenic civilization. Technogenic civilization is a historical stage in the development of Western civilization, a special type of civilizational development that took shape in Europe in the 15th-17th centuries. and spread throughout the globe, until the end of the 20th century. The main role in the culture of this type of civilization is played by scientific rationality, the special value of reason and the progress of science and technology based on it is emphasized. Characteristic features: 1) rapid changes in technology and technology due to the systematic application of scientific knowledge in the production; 2) as a result of the fusion of science and production, a scientific and technological revolution took place, which significantly changed the relationship between man and nature, the place of man in the production system; 3) the accelerating renewal of the object environment artificially created by man, in which his vital activity directly proceeds. This is accompanied by an increasing dynamics of social ties, their relatively rapid transformation. Sometimes, within one or two generations, there is a change in lifestyle and the formation of a new type of personality. On the basis of a technogenic civilization, two types of society have been formed - an industrial society and a post-industrial society. The current state of civilizational development has led to the formation of a global civilization.
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48. O. Spengler German philosopher, culturologist, historian, creator of the cyclical theory. Spengler's teaching was intended to overcome the global laughter of the evolution of culture widespread in the 19th century as a single ascending process of the formation of world culture, where European culture acted as the pinnacle of human development. World culture appears as a series of independent from each other closed cultures, each of which has its own pace of development and the allotted time of life. During this period, each culture goes through several stages: from birth through youth, maturity, old age to death. in millennia, but passing through 3 identical stages: mythological-symbolic early culture, metaphysical-religious high culture, late civilizational structure. the beginning of culture, the second- their ossification and transformation into mechanical, expressed in the rapid development of technology, the growth of cities into megacities. The phenomenon of crisis in culture was also considered by Sh. in his book The Decline of Europe. As an example of a crisis in culture, Sh. cites the death of the West, which he considers as a problem civilization. Every culture has its own civilization. "Civilization is completion. It follows culture as it has become after becoming, like death after life ... It is an inevitable end. All cultures come to it with a deep inner inevitability." , the final extinction of culture. Sh. believed that the crisis occurs when the soul of culture exists its totality of possibilities in the form of peoples, languages, arts, sciences, as a result of this culture again returns to the arms of the primitive soul, it stiffens and dies, its forces break down and it becomes civilization. In this form, it can exist for centuries. Culture is not able to develop forever according to a single, universal scheme. In its development difficulties come, which indicate the expiration of the time of a given culture. There can be no rebirth, a crisis is a signal to final death.
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42 .intercult.comm.-socially-conditioned process of exchange of information of various nature and content, transmitted by various means, with the aim of achieving mutual understanding among representatives of different cultures. groups, 3rd-at the level of large groups (nations, states, peoples) .Forms: 1) acculturation is both a process and a result of the mutual influence of different cultures in which all or part of the representatives of one culture (recipient) adopt the norms, values and traditions of another (donor). In the process, both or more interacting cultures act as the culture of the donor and recipient, although their degree influence on each other may not be the same. Today, the process of acculturation is studied at the level of individual behavior. In the process of acc., each person solves 2 problems: strives to preserve his cult. identity and is included in a foreign culture. Hence 4 possible options for the strategy of accult: 1) assimilation- a person completely adopts a foreign culture 2) separation-denial of a foreign culture while preserving his own identity 3) marginalization-at the same time loss of the identity of his own culture and lack of identity with the culture of the majority 4) integration-identity with both the old and the new culture. Factors affecting the character of accult .1 degree of differentiation of host culture-society have developed systems of morality, law, artistic culture, aesthetics are able to adapt the functional methods of innovation without undermining their spiritual structure. political and economic conditions of interaction - the situation is polit and econom. State-va or dependence largely determines the content of the culture of society 2) cultural expansion-expansion of the sphere of influence of dominir. Beyond the original limits and boundaries. Westernization represents an intense penetration of Western European and American lifestyles and relatedities. He values the customs of symbols and cultural artifacts of the Eastern European, Islamic, Asian countries. Today it is carried out through television, radio, cinema. National cinema and television cannot compete with American products. Many are pursuing a policy of protectionism, directed. To protect the nat. Cul-ry from expansion. Restriction on display of Americas is introduced. Film production. 3) diffusion - mutual penetration (borrowing. what is close to their culture and brings explicit or implicit benefit. Such borrowing occurs with a purposeful and conscious regulation of the diffusion process. If it takes place spontaneously, then it can be negative. 4) conflict-clash of subjects (carriers) of culture-carriers of different cult values and norms. The reason is the difference between m-peoples, social groups. Types-1. ethnic-m-y nations 2. inter-religious 3. m-y generations 4. the dominant and subculture within the framework of one society 5.m- traditions and innovations are inherent in rapidly changing general-wu 6.m- different lingua cultural communities arising as a result of language barriers and interpretation errors.
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43. the evolution of a person's perception of a different culture in a situation of going abroad goes through 3 main stages (according to N.K. Ikonnikov). Moreover, a new environment and new experience can lead to both positive and negative changes in behavior. In a number of cases, when it comes to individual perception, the zero stage is also distinguished, which usually takes place on the eve of direct contact and is associated with preliminary acquaintance with the situation, the formation of the first ideas and planning a general strategy of behavior in a new cultural environment. The first stage is “honeymoon” ", When acquaintance with a new culture, its achievements or representatives gives rise to optimism, high spirits, confidence in successful interaction. The second stage is" culture shock ". This is a period of frustration, when a positive emotional outlook is replaced by depression, confusion, and hostility. The shock arises primarily in the emotional sphere, but social factors such as the inability and rejection of new customs, behavior and communication style, pace of life, changes in material conditions of life, life infrastructure (traffic intensity, social contrasts, noise, bright advertising, etc.) and values. Symptoms are general anxiety, insomnia, fear. They can lead to depression, alcoholism or drug addiction, and even lead to suicide. Of course, culture shock has more than negative consequences. Modern researchers consider it as a normal reaction, as part of the usual process of getting used to new conditions. Moreover, in the course of this process, a person not only acquires knowledge about a new culture and new norms of behavior, but also becomes more developed culturally, although he experiences stress. The third stage involves the development of different strategies of behavior. In one case, this is "adaptation", when a realistic assessment of the situation is formed, an adequate understanding of what is happening, the ability to effectively achieve their own goals; in the other - "flight" - a complete rejection of the new culture and the inevitable retreat in this case, flight both in a figurative sense ("withdrawal") and in a direct, physical sense. The alternation of stages largely depends on the duration of cultural contact. A tourist trip or a short business trip, as a rule, does not exceed the honeymoon phase and leaves a vivid and pleasant experience. Staying abroad for six months or longer (study or work) allows you to get close enough to get acquainted with a new culture and enter the adaptation phase. However, during this time, a person's inability to adapt to a changing socio-cultural environment may also be revealed. A stay abroad of one to three months is the most difficult in terms of overcoming culture shock. At this time, people need urgent psychological and social assistance, contacts with compatriots and communication, mainly within their community.
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58. cultural expansion expansion of the sphere of influence of dominir. Beyond the original limits and boundaries. Westernization represents an intense penetration of Western European and American lifestyles and relatedities. He values the customs of symbols and cultural artifacts in Eastern European, Islamic, Asian countries. Today it is carried out through modern audiovisual means (television, radio, cinema). As a result, the national film art does not withstand competition with American products. Many are pursuing a policy of protectionism aimed at to protect the nat. Cul-ry from expansion. Restriction on display of Americas is introduced. Film production.
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44. each culture forms its own stereotypes of consciousness and behavior, based on its own vision of the world. Space in intercultural communication: the American scientist Hall introduced the term proxemics, which reflects the spatial organization of communications, as well as the influence of various cultural norms and stereotypes of perception of cult space on character of interpersonal communication 4 communication zones: 1. an intimate zone unites close enough people who do not want to initiate third parties into his life. from 0 to 60 cm. 2. personal space from 45 to 120 cm, the most suitable zone for communicating with other people. the most suitable distance for conversations. 3. social from 120 to 260-300 cm the most convenient distance for communicating with strangers or a small group. 4. public 3-3.5 m open is used when communicating with a large audience at public events. Features of the pace and rhythm of life, the passage of time in the theory of interculturalism. Communication studies chronemics. One of the most important cultural differences according to Hall is the difference between monochronic and polychronous perception and use of time. Monochrome - in the same period of time, only 1 type of activity is possible and actions are carried out sequentially one after the other. Polychronous assumes that during a certain period several things can be done at once. This affects different types of behavior in different cultures. Developed countries Germany USA. It is linear, everything is carefully calculated. Polychronous-Latin countries of the Middle East and Russia. More flexible in dealing with time. Differences m-in representatives of monochronic and polychronous cultures, bearers of monochronic culture are wealthy. Are closed, collected, concentrated on their work, observe all the contract, do not like to be distracted from work, responsible, try not to interfere with others, ponctual. people of polychronous culture often interrupt their work, do several things at once, attach less importance to contracts, often change their plans, take and lend, tend to establish relationships for life.
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45 In her article N.V. Latova compares Russian and Western mnometality based on a comparison of two fairy tales, The Wizard of the Country of OZ by the American writer Fr. Baum and The Wizard of the Emerald City of the Russian writer A. Volkov, which is a retelling of Baum's book. the content of fairy tales, then it differs to a minimum, often Volkov does not even retell but translates. Significant differences in the little things, which are indicators of the difference between the two mentalities, are already visible from the first chapter. Baum describes Kansas as a gray joyless valley (in contrast to the old Oz) , and Volkov emphasizes that this is Ellie's homeland and she cannot be gray and dull for her. The degree of patriotism is clearly traced here. Another difference is the feeling of camaraderie. how to ask the queen of mice to save Leo, Bolvasha thought for a long time, Volkov's heroes come to each other's rescue automatically, without time dumy. Baum's plot advances thanks to the individual actions of the heroes, while in Volkov everything is done collectively. In the scene with the cannibal, Volkov's heroes show their selflessness (do not spare themselves for others), and in the scene of the meeting of the darling with the inhabitants of the porcelain country, her position and her friends achieve the goal Among the peculiarities of the Russian and Western mentality, on the basis of these two tales of Latov, patriotism in Volkov's (desire to return home) and cosmopolitanism in Baum's (desire to live in a better place) stand out. Comparing these two tales helps to better understand the cultural values of Russia and the West. ...
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59.Diffusion- mutual penetration (borrowing. Cult. Damn and complexes from one society to another when they touch (cult.kontakte) Mechanism-migration, tourism, activity of missionaries, trade. in the process of cult. Diffusion peoples borrow not everything in a row, but only that that is close to their culture and brings a clear or hidden benefit, raises prestige., meets the internal needs of peoples, i.e., such needs that cannot be satisfied by the cultural artifacts of their own culture. Such borrowing occurs with purposeful and conscious regulation of the diffusion process. but it passes spontaneously, it can be negative
60. conflict-clash of subjects (carriers) of culture-carriers of various cultural values and norms. The reason is the difference between m-peoples, social groups. Types-1.ethnic-m-y nations 2.interreligious 3.m-y generations 4.m-in the dominant and subculture within the same community 5.m-in traditions and innovations is inherent in a rapidly changing community 6.m-in different lingua cultural communities arising as a result of language barriers and interpretation errors.
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50 Sorokin's theory of the existence of supersystems of culture is one of the most original culturological concepts of the 20th century. Based on the dual psychobiological nature of a person who thinks and feels, Sorokin identified 3 types of culture a) sensory, to which empirical-sensory perception and assessment of reality prevails, the predominance of the truth of feelings and the truth of pleasure b) the ideational type where supersensible, spiritual values prevail, worship of some absolutes, God or Idea, that is, the truth is true and the truth of self-denial c) the idealistic type is a kind of synthesis of the sensual and ideational types, where feeling is balanced by the intellect , faith-nike, empirical perception-intuition. Sorokin believes that the difference between the two opposite supersystems of culture is based on the main criterion: the idea of the nature of reality. The ideal supersystem has a supersensible nature, a divine principle. Sensual-real, adequate to the perception of our senses. Sorokin emphasizes that in a pure form in a particular society the ideational and sensual supersystems of culture are never fully realized, we can only talk about the domination of each of them in a particular historical period. the components of this typology are art, truth, law, morality. Ideational culture is inherently religious, its art is aimed at religious themes where the dominant plot is the kingdom of God, the heroes are God himself, angels, saints. The highest ideational truth for Sorokin is the truth of faith. Ideational ethical values and norms are built on unity with the supersensible. Negative attitude towards worldly pleasure and pleasures. The main thing is the impeccable performance of duties by people before God and society. sensual culture is the antipode of ideational. Sensitive art lives and develops in the world of feelings, its themes and characters are real events and representatives of various social groups. The tasks of this art are to please the recipient (listener, viewer), its style is naturalistic, free from symbolism. The third (idealistic) connects the supersensible and superrational aspects, acting as an intermediate between the other two supersystems. Sorokin came to the conclusion that in the history of human development there is a cyclical change of supersystems of culture in the sequence of ideational, idealistic, sensual. He argued that all supersystems have their own internal dynamics of life, from growth to death, but at the same time he was convinced that death does not have a total and irreversible character.
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51. Toynbee, the creator of the theory of the circulation of local civilizations. He represented world history as a set of separate closed and peculiar civilizations, each of which, like an organism, goes through the stages of origin, growth, crisis. Civilizations are divided by him into 3 generations. The first generation is primitive, small, unwritten. cultures, there are many of them and their age is small, they are distinguished by one-sided specialization, adapted to life in a specific geographic environment, statehood, education, science, all this is absent. These cultures multiply and die spontaneously, if they do not merge into a more powerful civilization of the second generation. living conditions that Toynbee calls a challenge, society cannot give an adequate response to rebuild and change the way of life. Continuing to live and act as if there was no challenge, the culture moves to the abyss and dies, some societies can give a satisfactory answer to the challenge and the formation of a subsidiary civilization begins. experience st its predecessor, but much more flexible and versatile. According to Toynbee, cultures that live in comfortable conditions, do not receive a challenge, are in a state of stagnation. Only where difficulties arise, where people's minds are agitated in search of a way out and new forms of survival, conditions are created for the birth of civilization According to Toynbee's law of the golden mean, a challenge should be neither too weak nor too harsh, in the first case there will be no adequate response, and in the second, insurmountable difficulties can completely suppress the emergence of civilization. Civilizations of the second generation are dynamic, they create large cities, in them the division of labor, commodity exchange, the market is developing, a system of status and ranks is established. the emergence of a full-fledged secondary civilization is not predetermined. in order for it to appear, a combination of conditions is necessary, since this is not always the case, some civilizations turn out to be frozen or underdeveloped. the problem of the birth of civilizations is one thing for Toynbee First of all, he believes that neither the racial type, nor the environment, nor the economic system play a decisive role in the birth of civilization - they arise as a result of mutations of primitive cultures that occur depending on combinations of many reasons. Civilizations of the third generation are formed on the basis of churches. in total, according to teibni, by the middle of the 20th century, out of three dozen existing civilizations, 7 or 8 survived.
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52 .Monuments of history and culture, witnesses of the past, reflect the path traveled by the people. They materialize their labor and military exploits, reveal the spiritual wealth of the country. The careful and careful use of cultural heritage presupposes the preservation of monuments as unchanged as possible. To pass on the monuments of the past to subsequent generations, the policy of the state should pay attention to their preservation. Monuments of archeology, history and culture of the PMR are included as an integral part of the cultural heritage of all mankind. The state policy in the field of protection of monuments was determined in the initial period of its formation. The first decree of the Supreme Council on the preservation of cultural for the protection of monuments. For many years, regulations have been created to promote the protection of the country's cultural heritage, aimed at preserving the objects of the republic's historical and cultural heritage. The Convention for the Protection of the Cultural and Natural Heritage of Humanity (1972) and the Recommendation for the Preservation of Historical Ensembles (1976) were adopted at UNESCO. The result of the adoption of the Convention was the creation of a system of international cultural cooperation, which was headed by the above-mentioned committee. His duties include compiling the List of Outstanding World Cultural Monuments and assisting the participating States in ensuring the safety of the relevant sites. Inclusion of a cultural monument on the World Heritage List means that it becomes an object of special protection and, if necessary, international actions can be organized to preserve it. priority assistance was provided in its study, experts, sophisticated equipment, etc. were provided. The recommendation for the preservation of historical ensembles supplements and expands the Convention and a number of other international instruments. The essence of the document is to ensure comprehensiveness in the protection of cultural heritage, especially architectural heritage. In close cooperation with UNESCO, the International Council for the Preservation of Historical Sites and Historical Monuments, ICOMOS, is working. This organization, founded in 1965 and uniting specialists from 88 countries, builds its activities on the protection of cultural and historical values, their restoration and conservation. Also, ICOMOS is engaged in the training of specialists and issues of legislation. The Venice Charter (Venice, May 1964) was of great importance in the preservation of cultural heritage. ). According to the Charter, historical monuments are considered individual architectural structures, complexes of urban and rural buildings that have developed historically and are associated with cultural processes or historical events. On the initiative of ICOMOS, a number of documents were adopted to improve security in the world. Among them - the Florentine International Charter for the Protection of Historic Gardens (1981), the International Charter for the Protection of Historic Sites (1987), the International Charter for the Protection and Use of Archaeological Heritage (1990). -cultural heritage, especially the International Center for Research in the Field of Conservation and Restoration of Cultural Property, called the Roman Center - ICCROM. ICCROM members are representatives of 80 countries, including Russia. The center studies and distributes documentation, coordinates scientific research, provides assistance and gives recommendations on the protection and restoration of monuments, organizing the training of specialists
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55 ... Freud's psychoanalytic teaching on culture is a way of interpreting signs, semiotics, or even symptomatology of culture. "Culture" refers to the totality of the achievements and institutions that distinguish our lives from the lives of our animal ancestors and serve two purposes: protecting people from nature and regulating relations between people. We refer to culture all forms of activity and all values that benefit a person, subjugate the earth to him, protect him from the forces of nature, etc. Culture, according to Freud, is based on the refusal to satisfy the desires of the unconscious and exists due to the energy of libido. In his work "Dissatisfaction in Culture" (1930), Freud concludes that the progress of culture leads to a decrease in human happiness and an increase in the sense of guilt due to the growing restriction of the realization of natural desires. Subsequent systematization and development of the psychoanalytic doctrine of culture received in the work "I" and "It" (1923). In it, 3. Freud complements the "pleasure principle", the attraction to Eros with the desire for death (Thanatos) as the second polar force that prompts a person to action. To understand this psychoanalytic concept, his improved model of personality is very important, in which I, It and the Superego are fighting for spheres of influence. It (id) is the deepest layer of unconscious drives, the essential core of the personality, over which the rest of the elements are built. I (Ego) is the sphere of the conscious, a mediator between the unconscious drives of a person and external reality (cultural and natural). Super-I (Super Ego) - the sphere of obligation, moral censorship, acting on behalf of parental authority and established norms in culture. The superego is a connecting bridge between culture and the inner layers of the personality. This structural diagram is a universal way to explain the behavior, activities of a person of modern and archaic culture, normal and insane. In addition to the previously indicated aspirations for Eros and Thanatos, 3. Freud notes that people have an innate tendency to destruction and an unbridled passion for torture (sadism). In connection with such a negative portrait, a person needs culture, which in this context Freud defines as something "imposed on the opposing majority by a certain minority who managed to appropriate the means of coercion and power." Parts, elements of culture (Freud means mainly spiritual culture) - religion, art, science - are the sublimation (repression) of suppressed unconscious impulses in socio-cultural forms. For example, religion is a fantastic projection into the external world of unsatisfied drives. Culture makes life safer by blocking human instincts, human aggressiveness, but the price is the mental health of a person who is torn between the natural psychic element and cultural norms, between sexuality and sociality, aggressiveness and morality.
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46 In his article, Soklov examines the concept of tolerance, its essence and relevance, and says that, in our understanding, tolerance is a certain ideological and moral-psychological attitude of a person to the extent to which she accepts or not accepts alien ideas, culture, thoughts, customs , norms of behavior. The author sees the essence of tolerance in the admissibility of other points of view, in a loyal attitude to other political convictions, religious views, etc. However, tolerance is not tolerance for hostile and destructive actions in relation to oneself, one's own group, one's country and does not mean a refusal or departure from one's principles, convictions, beliefs, etc. Sokolov argues that the concepts of patience and tolerance should not be confused. Patience is the level, the threshold for the individual's activities of social, spiritual and other influences that are unfavorable for her. Sokolov identified 5 specific levels of 9 degrees) of tolerance to an alien, another. repressive measures to another 2) discussion, demand for an irreconcilable ideological struggle, exposure, social prohibition of the alien but without the use of repressive measures 3) indifference to the other 4) rejection of the alien but respectful attitude towards him and his carriers 5) practical respect for the alien, the struggle for that so that it does not reflect in society, it has every right to be represented in it. The first two levels characterize a person with negative ideological and moral-psychological attitudes towards tolerance. The third with immature attitudes. The fourth and fifth with varying degrees of tolerance. According to Sokolov, tolerance is the main spiritual and moral principle of civil society This is its main significance. The article also presents the results of a sociological survey of residents of Moscow and Zelenograd (1100 people), conducted to identify the state and level of their tolerance in general and in individual spheres of public life (political, religious-confessional, in interethnic relations, culture and social behavior). It is stated that in comparison with Soviet society in modern Russia there is a higher tolerance for worldview dissent, in relation to other forms of everyday behavior, youth fashion, etc. At the same time, there is an increase in intolerance towards manifestations of social injustice and its carriers. The formation of a tolerant consciousness in Russia, a multinational country emerging from a national crisis, is viewed as a difficult task, taking into account the consequences of outbreaks of interethnic conflicts and frequent manifestations of separatism and political extremism.
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