Golden age of Dutch and Flemish painting. Dutch artists and their history
In the meantime, this is a special, worthy of a more detailed study of the European culture, which reflects the distinctive life of the people of Holland of those times.
History of appearance
Bright artistic art representatives began to appear in the country in the seventeenth century. French cultratologists gave them a common name - "Small Dutch", which is not associated with the scale of talents and means attaching to certain topics from everyday life, opposite to "large" style with large canvases on historical or mythological stories. The history of the emergence of Dutch painting was described in detail in the nineteenth century, and the authors of her works also used this term. "Small Dutch" was distinguished by secular realism, referred to the world and people, used painting rich in tones.
The main stages of development
The history of the emergence of Dutch painting can be divided into several periods. The first lasted approximately from 1620 to 1630, when the national art was approved by realism. The second period of Dutch painting experienced in 1640-1660. This time, which accounts for a real flourishing of the local art school. Finally, the third period, the time when Dutch painting began to fall into decline - from 1670 to the beginning of the eighteenth century.
It is worth noting that cultural centers have changed throughout this time. In the first period, leading artists worked in Kharlem, and the head of the representative was Hals. Then the center shifted to Amsterdam, where the most significant work was performed by Rembrandt and Vermeer.
Scenes of everyday life
Listing the most important genres of Dutch painting, it is necessary to start with domestic - the most bright and original in history. It was Flamians who opened the world of scenes from the household life of ordinary people, peasants and citizens or burghers. The first pioneers were the left and his followers of Audenrogge, Bega and Dusart. In the early canvases, people play cards, quarrel and even fight in the restaurant. Each picture is distinguished by dynamic, in something brutal. Dutch painting of those times tells about peaceful scenes: in some works, the peasants talk behind the tube and a mug of beer, spend time at the fair or a family circle. Rembrandta influence led to a common use of soft blue green light. City scenes inspired by artists like Hals, Leister, Molyar and Codda. In the middle of the seventeenth century, the Masters depicted doctors, scientists in the process of work, their own workshops, cotton houses or each plot should be entertaining, sometimes to the grotesque didactic. Some masters were inclined to poetize weekdays, for example, Terboro depicted a scene of a musication or flirting. Metasy used bright colors, turning everyday life in a holiday, and de Heh was inspired by the simplicity of family life, filled with a scattered daylight. Late representatives of the genre, which include such Dutch masters of painting, like Van der Verf and Van der Norm, in their quest for an elegant image often created several pretentious plots.
Nature and landscapes
In addition, Dutch painting is widely represented in the landscape genre. He first originated in the work of such Masters Harlem, like Wang Goyen, de Moles and Van Reydal. It was they who began to depict rural corners in a certain silver light. The material unity of nature went into the work on the fore. Separately, it is worth mentioning marine landscapes. Marinists were such 17th centuries as Portsellis, de Vlieger and Wang de Chapel. They did not so much sought to convey certain sea scenes as they tried to portray the water itself, the game of light on it and in the sky.
For the second half of the seventeenth century, more emotional works with philosophical ideas arose in the genre. The beauty of the Dutch landscape was revealed as much as possible Jan Van Reydal, depicting it in all dramatism, dynamics and monumentality. The successor of his traditions became a hobbe, who preferred solar landscapes. Kindk depicted panoramas, and Van der Rish was engaged in creating night landscapes and the transfer of moonlight, sunrise and sunset. For a number of artists is also characterized by the image in the landscapes of animals, such as grazing cows and horses, as well as hunting and scenes with cavalryrs. Later, artists began to be carried away and foreign nature - Bot, Van Lar, Venix, Bercher and Hakkert depicted Italy, bathing in the rays of the southern sun. The nap of the genre was Sanurm, the best followers of which can be called Berkheide's brothers and Jan Van der Hayden.
Image of interior
A separate genre, which was distinguished by Dutch painting during the heyday, can be called scenes with church, palace and home-made rooms. The interiors appeared in the canvases of the second half of the seventeenth century at the Masters of Delft - Hawgesta, Van der Vlita and De Witte, who became the main representative of the direction. Using the vermier techniques, artists depicted scenes, filled with sunlight, full emotions and volume.
Scenic dishes and dishes
Finally, another characteristic genre of Dutch painting is still life, especially the image of breakfast. For the first time they were engaged in Harlemakers Clas and Hedd, who painted covered tables with luxurious dishes. The picturesque mess and the special transfer of the cozy interior are filled with silver-gray light characteristic of silver and tin dishes. Utrecht artists painted lush flower still lifes, and in the Hague masters, the image of fish and sea reptiles were especially possible. In Leiden, the philosophical direction of the genre was arose, in which the symbols of sensual pleasure or earthly glory are adjacent to the skulls and hourglass, designed to remind about the time of time. Democratic kitchen still lifes have become a distinctive feature of the Rotterdam Art School.
In the XVII century, the Dutch School of Painting has become one of the leading in Europe. It was here, for the first time in the history of world art, the objects of the surrounding reality were the source of creative inspiration, and the artistic plan. In the Dutch art of this time, the formation of a whole system of genres, which began in the era of revival, was completed. In portraits, household paintings, landscapes and still lifes, artists with rare skill and warmth passed their impressions of the surrounding nature and unfortunate life. They found a reflection of the collective appearance of the Holland - a young republic, established independence in the war with Spain.
"Morning young ladies." 1660 France Miris Senior. Tree, oil. State Hermitage
Pictures of artists on household topics (or genre paintings) depicted people in the usual, everyday situation, reflected established forms of life, pending and communicating people belonging to various CO-Words of the Dutch society. Designed for Ukrainian interiors of merchants, artisans or wealthy peasants, paintings by Dutch artists were small in size. Artists earned the sale of paintings, which were written with the possibility of detailed viewing from a close distance. This, in turn, gave rise to a particularly thorough, subtle letter of the letter.
"Society on the terrace." 1620 Esais Wang de Veld. Tree, oil. State Hermitage
Throughout the 17th century, the genre painting of Holland has undergone significant evolution. During its formation, at the beginning of the century, plots on the topics of recreation, entertainment of young rich dutch, or scenes from the life of officers were distributed. Such pictures received the names of "banquets", "societies", "concerts". Their painting was distinguished by a variety of color, highly joyful tone. The picture "Society on the terrace" of Esayas Wang de Velda belongs to the description of this kind.
By the beginning of the 1930s, the Dutch genre painting was completed. Multiple "societies" gave way to low-profile compositions. An image of an environment surrounding the environment has become a big role. There was a separation of genre painting on social characteristic: plots on topics from the life of the bourgeoisie, and the scenes from the life of the peasants and the urban poor. And those and other paintings were intended to decorate the interior.
"Fight". 1637 Adrian Wang Odete. Tree, oil. State Hermitage
One of the most famous artists who worked as the "peasant genre" was Adrian Wang Odete. In the early period of the creative, the image of the peasants in his paintings was distinguished by an underlined community, sometimes reaching the caricature. Thus, in the painting "Frak", lit by a sharp light, the fights seem not live people, and puppets whose faces are like masks distorted by grimaces of anger. The opposition of cold and warm colors, sharp contrasts of light and shadow even more enhance the impression of the grotesque scene.
"Rustic musicians." 1635 Adrian Van de Odest 1635. Tree, oil. State Hermitage
In the 1650s, in the painting of Adrian, the Odest was changed. The artist appealed to the more spo-coin plots, depicting a person during a naught classes, most often in moments of rest. Such is the example, the interior picture "Rustic musicians". The Ostay skillfully conveys the concentration of the "musicians" enthusized with his occupation, with a barely noticeable humor depicting the children watching them. The variety and softness of a black and white game, a greenish brown co-loric gamma combines people and their surroundings into a single integer.
"Winter look." 1640. Isaac Wan Odete. Tree, oil. State Hermitage
In the "peasant genre" worked early the deceased brother of Adriana - ICAAP Wan Odete. He portrayed the life of rural Holland, in nature which man felt like at home. In the painting "Winter View", a typical Dutch landscape with gray is presented, heavily hung over the ground with a sky, frozen river, on the shore of which the village is located.
"Patient and doctor". 1660 Jan Walls. Tree, oil. State Hermitage
The genre theme of the art of the brothers Ostshe continued by the Yang walls, a talented master, with a sense of humor, the characteristic details of the life and relationships of the acting persons in their paintings. In the painting "Walks" on the viewer, the artist himself sitting next to his wife, asleep after a fun feast, watches the viewer. In the painting "Patient and doctor" through the facial and gestures of the characters, Yang walls skillfully reveals the plot of imaginary illness.
"Room in a Dutch house." Peter Yanence. Canvas, oil. State Hermitage
In the fifties - the sixties of the XVII century, the topics of genre paintings are gradually narrows. Changes image patterns. They become calmer, chaler, they appear more lyrical contemplation, quiet thoughtfulness. This stage is represented by the work of such artists as: Peter de Heh, Herard Terborh, Gabriel Metsu, Peter Yanence. The poetic and somewhat idealized image of the daily life of the Dutch bourgeoisie, who once fought for their rights and independence, was embodied in their work, and has now reached sustainable welfare. So, in the interior picture "Room in the Dutch House" Peter Jansence is depicted by sunlight cozy room with playing on the floor and on the walls of sunny bunnies, in the painting "Old woman near the fireplace" jacob Vroel - immersed in a soft twilight room with a fireplace. The choice of composition in the works of both artists emphasizes the unity of man and the surrounding environment.
"Glass of Lemonade." 1664 Gerard Terbor. Host (translation from wood), oil. State Hermitage
During these years, the Dutch genranists first tried to reflect the depth of the inner life of a person. In the life situations occurring daily situations, they found the opportunity to reflect a diverse world of the finest experiences. But it is possible to see it only with attentive and thoroughly reviewing the picture. So, in the picture of Herard Terborch "Glass of Lemonada" as a catchy language of gestures, hand-drawn, meetings, reveals a whole range of senses and relationships of characters.
"Breakfast". 1660 Gabriel Metsu. Tree, oil. State Hermitage
The subject world begins to play a big role in the genre paintings of this period. It no longer only characterizes the material and emotional human life environment, but also expresses the diversity of human relationships with the surrounding world. A set of objects, their location, a complex system of symbols, as well as gestures of characters - everything plays a role in creating a figurative picture of the picture.
"Walking". 1660 Jan Walls. Tree, oil. State Hermitage
Dutch genre painting did not differ in a wide variety of scenes. Artists are limited to the image of only a certain range of characters and their classes. But, with their help, the Dutch genre painting was able to transmit a reliable image of morals, customs, and ideas about the life of a person of the XVII century.
In preparing the publication, materials from open sources were used.
The victory of the bourgeois revolution in the Northern Netherlands led to the formation of an independent state of the Republic of the seven United States of Holland (by the name of the most significant of these provinces); For the first time in one of the countries of Europe, the bourgeois-republican system was established. The driving forces of the revolution were peasants and the poorest layers of the urban population, but the bourgeoisie, who came to power, took advantage of the conquest. However, in the first decades, the democratic traditions of the revolutionary pore were alive after the establishment of the republic. The latitude of the national liberation movement, the rise of the self-consciousness of the people, the joy of liberation from the foreign yoke united the most different layers of the population. The country has developed conditions for the development of sciences and arts. Here, the refuge of the advanced thinkers of that time in particular the French philosopher Descartes were found, the materialist spinosis system was formed. The highest achievements achieved the artists of Holland. They were the first in Europe; Released from the crude influence of the court circles, and the Catholic Church and created art democratic and realistic directly reflecting social reality.
A distinctive feature of the development of Dutch art was a significant predominance among all his species of painting. The paintings were decorated at home not only by representatives of the ruling top of society, but also of the poor burghers, artisans, peasants; They were sold at auctions and fairs; Sometimes artists used them as a means of paying bills. The artist's profession was not rare, painters were a lot, and they were severely competing among themselves. The rapid development of painting was explained not only by demand for the paintings of those who wanted to decorate their home, but also a look of them as a product, as a means of profit, the source of speculation. Having got rid of the direct customer of the Catholic Church or the influential patrons-feudal, the artist was entirely dependent on the market requests. The tastes of the bourgeois society predetermined the ways of the development of Dutch art, and artists who defended them, who defended their independence in matters of creativity, turned out to be isolated, died untimely in need and loneliness. And these were usually the most talented masters. It is enough to name the names of Hals and Rembrandt.
The main object of the image for Dutch artists was the surrounding reality, never previously found such a complete display in the works of painters of other national schools. Appeal to the most different sides of life led to strengthening realistic trends in painting, the leading place in which the household genre and portrait, landscape and still life took place. The truthful, the artists opening up to them deeper with the real world, the more significant were their works. France Hals Maslennic
In each genre there were their branches. For example, among the landscape players were marinists (pictures of the sea), painters who preferred types of plain places or forest thickets were masters specializing in winter landscapes and landscapes with lunar light: artists who portrayed peasants, burghers, scenes of pirushki and homemade life, scenes of hunting and markets; There were masters of church interiors and various types of still lifes "breakfasts", "desserts", "shops", etc. They affected the features of the limitity of Dutch painting, taking the number of tasks solved for its creators. But at the same time, the concentration of each artist on a certain genre contributed to the deposit of mastery of the painter. Only the largest of Dutch artists worked in various genres. France Chals Group of Children
The founder of the Dutch realistic portrait was Frans Hals (OK :), whose artistic legacy of fresh sharp and power, the coverage of the inner world of man goes far beyond the national Dutch culture. The artist of a wide worldview, a bold innovator, he destroyed the canons of the estate (noble) portrait of 16 V. He was not interested in not a person depicted according to his public situation in a majestic solemn pose and a parade suit, but a person in all its natural essence, characteristics, with his feelings, intellect, emotions.
The meeting of officers of the company of St. Adrian in Harlem Strong, energetic people who actively participate in the liberation struggle against the Spanish conquerors are presented during a feast. Merry, with a shade of humor, the mood unites different officers from the characters and manners. There is no main character here. All those present equal participants in the holiday.
Hals depicted his heroes without embellishment, with their unceremonious nravami, powerful life. He expanded the portrait framework by the introduction of scene elements, capturing portrayed in action, in a specific life situation, emphasizing the facial expressions, gesture, pose, instantly and accurately seized. The artist sought the emotional strength and vitality of the characteristics of portrayed, transmission of their irrepressible energy. He not only reformed a single customized and group portraits, but was the creator of the portrait, bordering the household genre. Potter Musician
Portraits of Hals are diverse on topics and images. But portrays are combined with general features: the wholeness of nature, and vitality. Hals painter laughter, cheerful causing smile. The artist of representatives of the simpleness, visitors of zucchini, street boys revives sparkling fun. His characters do not get closed in themselves, they turn looks and gestures to the viewer. Boon companion
Wolno-loving breath of Oweyan The image of "Gypsy" (OK, Paris, Louvre). Hals admires the proud planting of her head in the halo of fluffy hair, a seductive smile, a perky glitter of eyes, an expression of independence. Vibrating outlines of silhouette, sliding rays of light, running clouds, against the background of which the gypsy is depicted, fill the image of a thrill of life.
Portrait of Mallet Babbe (Nach., Berlin, Dalem, Picture Gallery), Tavern's Self-called "Harlem Witch", develops into a small genre scene. The ugly old woman with a burning hitrea look, sharply turning around and widespread, as if answering someone from the regulars of his zucchini. With a gloomy silhouette, sinister owl is evaluated on her shoulder. Amazing the severity of the artist's vision, the sullen strength and vitality of the image created by him. The asymmetry of the composition, dynamics, the juiciness of the angular smear enhances the anxiety of the scene.
Late portraits of Halsa stand next to the most wonderful creations of world portrait painting: they are close to their psychologism to the portrait of the greatest of the Dutch painters of Rembrandt, who, as well as Hals, survived his lifetime glory, enhancing a conflict with a reborn bourgeois tip of the Dutch society. RENTURSHIRS FOR ANNes
The most popular in Dutch painting was a household genre, in many respects identifying peculiar ways to its development compared with the art of other countries. Appeal to the most different sides of everyday life, its poetry led to the formation of a variety of types of genre paintings. High picturesque mastery of their creators, optimistic character, soft lyricism inform them that charm, which justifies the image of the most minor motives. Peter de Heh at the lounge cabinet
The Dutch Master of the Baroque Peter de Heoche (HOO) was one of the leading representatives of the Delft School of the XVII century. The works of the painter are devoted to ordinary, few outstanding events of a quiet calm life of the Burgers family. Interior serve neat courtyards or purely baked rooms. For the pictures of Hoha, a refined accurate drawing is characterized with a calm color and unobtrusive flower accents. The master had an amazing ability to capture the "moment of being" - for a moment the stopped conversation, some kind of action. This ability makes pictures of Hoha attractive, creating a feeling of mysteriousness, although in the image there would seem to be nothing unusual. Such perception of painting Hoha contributes to his virtuoso mastery of a realist, capable of turning everyday life in an interesting spectacle.
A deep poetic feeling, impeccable taste, the finest colorism determine the work of the most outstanding from the masters of genre painting, the third after Hals and Rembrandt, the Great Dutch painter Jan Vermeer Delftsky (). Possessing a striking eye eye, filigree technique, he sought poetry, the integrity and beauty of the figurative decision, great attention is paid to the transmission of the light-air environment. The artistic legacy of the verser is relatively small, since he worked slowly and with extraordinary thoroughness. For earning Vermeer was forced to engage in trading pictures.
A man for Vermeer is inseparable from the poetic world, who admires the artist and who finds such a kind of refraction in his creations, in its own way embodying the idea of \u200b\u200bbeauty, about the measured calm course of life, about the happiness of man. Especially harmonious and clear on the compositional construction of a "girl with a letter" (end of the 1650s., Dresden, art gallery), a picture saturated with air and light, weathered in bronze-green, reddish, golden colors, among which yellow and blue sparkle Paints prevailing in the forefast foreground.
It is leisurely confident in the movements, charming and naturally a woman from the people in the painting "Maulus with a jug of milk", penetrated by light optimism and recreating a special, ooetized atmosphere of everyday life. The appearance of a young woman breathes a healthy force, moral purity; Objects, its surrounding, are written with amazing life reliability, it seems a tangible softness of fresh bread, a smooth surface of the jug, the density of the flowing milk. Here, as in a number of other works of the versa, his striking gift is manifested to finely feel and transfer the lives of things, wealth and a variety of forms of real objects, vibration of light and air around them.
The amazing skill of the Vermeer is found in two landscapes written by him belonging to the wonderful samples of this painting genre not only in Dutch, but also in world art. Extremely simple motive "Retreat" or rather, her small part, with a brick house facade depicted in a gray, cloudy day. Amazes the material tangibility of each item, the spirituality of each part.
A completely different character is "view of the city of Delft" the artist looks at his hometown on a summer day after the rain. The sun rays begin to break through through wet silvery clouds, and the whole picture sparkles and sparkles many colorful shades and light highlights and at the same time sees wholeness and poetic beauty.
The principles of the Dutch realistic landscape were over the first third of the 17th century. Instead of conventional canons and idealized, invented nature in the paintings of the Italianizing directions, the creators of the realistic landscape turned to the image of the real nature of Holland with its dunes and canals, houses and villages. They not only captured the nature of the terrain with all the signs, creating the typical motives of the national landscape, but they sought to convey the atmosphere of the season, wet air and space. This contributed to the development of tonal painting, submissal of all components of the picture of a single tone.
The outstanding landscape of Holland was Jacob Van Reydal (1628/291682), spiritualized his landscapes with large personal feelings and experiences. Just like other major artists of Holland, he did not go on concessions to the tastes of bourgeois customers, always remaining himself. Reydal was not limited to certain image themes. The circle of its landscape motifs is very wide, these types of villages, plains and dunes, forest marshes and the sea depicted in the most varying weather and different times of the year. Winter scene
The artist's creative maturity falls on the middle of the 17th century. At this time, he creates works performed by deep drama, transmitting the inner life of nature: "View of the village of Egmond", "Forest Boloto", "Jewish cemetery" which their restrained, dusky flavor, the monumentalization of forms and constructions answered the experiences of the artist. He seeks the greatest emotional strength and depth of philosophical meaning in the image of the Jewish cemetery with its whitening tombstones and ruins, with a foaming flow, dried by the root branches of the tree, illuminated by flash lightning, which illuminates the fresh greens of a young sprout. So wins in this gloomy meditation the idea of \u200b\u200ban ever-updating life that makes his way through all the storms and destructive forces.
Along with landscape painting, there was a significant distribution in Holland still life, which was intimate character. Dutch artists chose a wide variety of items for their still lifes, they knew how to comply with them perfectly, identify the features of each subject and his inner life, inextricably linked human life. Peter Clas (OK) and Hed (/ 82) Willem (/ 82) wrote numerous options for "breakfasts", depicting at the table of ham, ruddy buns, black-made pies, fragile glass glasses, half-filled with wine, with amazing skill transmitting color, volume, the texture of each item. Peter Clas.Nature-life with a golden bed.
In the Netherlands of the XVII century. The genre of still life was greatly distributed. Aesthetic principles of still life were rather conservative: horizontal fabric format, lower edge of the table with simply paralleled frame. The folds on the dining tablecloth, as a rule, went by parallel lines, contrary to the laws of the prospects, in the depths of the canvas; The items were considered from a high point of view (so that it was easier to cover them all the look), were located in line or in a circle and practically did not touch Hed Villem Class breakfast with crab
Hedi Villem Clas Still Life with the Golden Cup Heba, as well as the influence of Peter Clas the most significant representatives of this kind of still lifes in Holland. These two Harly masters often compare. Both of them created modest "breakfasts" with a simple set of uncomplicated items. Hebeds and a class Rodinate greenish-gray or browned tones, but the works of Head have, as a rule, more carefully decorated, and the taste of it is more aristocratic, which was manifested in choosing the objects depicted: silver, and not tin utensils, oysters, not herring, etc. P.
Introduction
1. Small Dutch
Dutch Painting School
Genre painting
4. Symbolism. Still life
Rembrandt Van Rhine
Vermeer Delftan Jan.
Conclusion
Introduction
The purpose of the test work is:
· In the development of creative potential;
· Formation of interest in art;
· Fastening and replenishing knowledge.
In the XVII century, Dutch art originated. This art is considered independent and independent, it has certain forms and features.
Until the XVII century, Holland did not have its meaningful artists in art, because He entered into the state of Flanders. However, several artists are celebrated in a given period of time. This is an artist and engraver Luca Leiden (1494-1533), painter Dirk Boauts (1415-1475), Rail Artist (1495-1562).
Gradually mixed different schools and masters lost the distinctive features of their schools, and the remaining artists of Holland cease to have the spirit of national creativity. Many different and new styles appear. Artists are trying to write paintings in all genres, looking for an individual style. Genre methods were erased: historicity is not so obligatory as before. A new genre is created - group porters.
At the beginning of the XVII century, when the fate of Holland was solved - Philip II sounded about the truce between Spain and the Netherlands. Need a revolution, political or military situation. The struggle for independence united the people. War strengthened the National Spirit. Signed agreements with Spain, gave Holland freedom. It pushed to the creation of her own and special art, expressed the essence of the Dutch.
The feature of Dutch artists was to create a real image to the smallest details - manifestation of feelings and thoughts. This is the basis of the Dutch school. It becomes realistic art, and by the middle of the XVII century reaches the vertices in all areas.
For Holland, typically separation not only for genres, but also on numerous subspecies. Some masters write scenes from life of the burghers and officers - Peter de Hookh (1495-1562), Gerard Terborh (1617-1681), Gabriel Metsu (1629-1667), the second - from peasant life - Adrian Wang Ostay (1610-1685), Third - scenes from the life of scientists and doctors - Gerrit Dow (1613-1675); Landscape drivers - Jan Portsellis (1584-1632), Simon de Vlieger (1601-1653), Forest Corners - Mainender Hobbeme (1638-1609), Master of Interior - Peter Yansense (1623-1682). Periodically, a certain genre becomes traditional in art schools. For example, Harlem painters still life to the so-called "breakfasts" - Peter Clas (1598-1661), Willle Hed (1594-1680).
Artists show the morals and customs, ethical and moral norms of human behavior. Frequently depicting family events. The landscape players and masters of still life transmit light in the open air, in the closed rooms, masterfully depict the texture of objects. Household painting is located on top, thanks to Jana Wall (1626-1679), Gerhard Terborh (1617-1681), Peter de Hehu (1629-1624).
1. Small Dutch
Small Dutch are a group of artists of the XVII century, in which the painters of landscape and household genre paintings are united by the painters (hence the name). Such pictures were intended for a modest interior of residential buildings. They were acquired by the townspeople and peasants. For such pictures, the feeling of comfort is characterized in the picture, the subtlety of the details, the proximity of the person and the interior.
P. de Heh, Ya. Van Goyen (1596-1656), Ya. And S. Van Ryutsdal (1628-1682) and (1602 - 1670), E. De Witte (1617-1692), P. Clas, V. Hedi, V. Kalph (1619-1693), Tereborh, Metsu, A. Van Odete, Ya. Walls (1626-1679), A. Kyype (1620-1691), etc. Everyone specialized, as a rule, In one of the genre. "Small Dutch" continued the traditions of the Netherlands Masters of the Renaissance, who claimed that art should not only bring pleasure, but also remind of values.
Creativity of artists can be divided into 3 groups:
1630s. - approval of realism in national painting (the leading art center was Harlem, an important factor was the influence of F. Hals);
1640-1660s. - The flourishing of art school (the art center moves to Amsterdam, attracting artists from other cities, the effect of Rembrandt becomes relevant<#"justify">2. Dutch School of Painting
Three-quarters of the century continued the rise of art in the north of the Netherlands, in the Republic of the United Provinces, called Holland. In 1609, this republic received state status. Here there was a bourgeois state.
The Italian artist Caravaggio (1571-1610) was a significant role to painting the Renaissance era (1571-1610). He wrote his paintings very realistic, and the items and figures had a high lightweight technique.
Artists were a lot, and they lived in small towns: Kharlem, Delphte, Leiden. Each of these cities have developed its own school with genre theme inherent in it, but Amsterdam played the most important role in the development of Dutch art.
3. Genre painting
In Holland, together with the fame of the genre of the landscape, new ones appear: Marina - the sea landscape, the city landscape - the lead, image of animals is animal painting. Significant influence on the landscape was provided by Peter Bruegel (1525-1529). The Dutch wrote their, peculiar beauty of the nature of the native edge. In the XVII century, the Dutch School of Painting has become one of the leading in Europe. The surrounding objects of people have become a source of inspiration for artists. In the art of this time, the formation of a system of genres was completed, which began in the era of revival. In portraits, household paintings, landscapes and still lifes, artists transferred their impressions of nature and life. A new idea began to have a genre of household painting - genre painting. The household genre was formed in two species - the peasant and burgher (urban) genre. In genre paintings, a private person was depicted: Pirushki Gulik, economic activity, musitization. Artists paid attention to the outside, poses, costumes. The items became part of the coziness: a table of a mahogany, a wardrobe, a chair, a covered skin, a decanter of dark glass and a glass, fruit. Such a genre reflected the behavior and communication of people belonging to various estates.
The work of Garard Dow enjoyed greatly popular. He writes modest scenes from life with small bourgeoisie. Frequently depicts the elderly women sitting behind a battle or reading. The obvious tendency of DOU - the surfaces of the objects in their small pictures - patterns of fabrics, wrinkles of senile faces, fish, etc. (application; Fig.
But genre painting suffered evolution. During the period of becoming it, the stories on the topics of recreation, entertainment, scenes from the life of officers were distributed. Such pictures were called "breakfasts", "banquets", "societies", "concerts". This painting was distinguished by a variety of color and joyful tones. The original was the genre - "breakfasts". This is a look of still life, in which through the image of the dishes, a variety of dishes passed the character of their owners.
The household genre is the most distinctive and distinctive phenomenon of the Dutch school, which has discovered for world art everyday life of a private person.
In the genre theme of art wrote and Yang walls. He with a sense of humor marked the details of the life and relationship of people. In the painting "Walks" on the viewer, the artist himself sitting next to his wife, asleep after a fun feast, watches the viewer. And in the picture through the facial expressions and gestures of the characters, Yang wall skillfully reveals the plot of imaginary illness.
By the beginning of the 1930s, the Dutch genre painting was completed. Deli genre painting on social characteristic: plots on topics from the life of the bourgeoisie, and scenes from the life of peasants and urban poor.
One of the famous artists, writing in the "peasant genre," was Adrian Wang Osta. In the early period of creativity, the image of the peasants was distinguished by commissism. So, in the picture, illuminated by a sharp light, fights, seem not live people, and puppets. Contrasting of cold and warm colors, sharp contrasts of light create masks with evil emotions on their faces.
Later, the artist writes pictures with more relaxed plots, depicting a person during the usual occupations, most often in moments of rest. For example, the interior picture "Rustic Musicians". The tolee transmits the concentration of "musicians", with a barely noticeable humor depicting those who observe them into the window of children. In the "peasant genre" worked early the deceased brother of Adriana - ICAAP Wan Odete. He portrayed the life of rural Holland. In the picture "Winter View", a typical landscape with a gray, hanging over the ground, a frozen river, on the shore of which the village is located.
In the 50-60 years of the XVII century, the topics of genre paintings narrows, their system changes. They become calmer, lyrical, thoughtful. This stage is represented by the work of such artists as: Peter de Heh, Herard Terborh, Gabriel Metsu, Peter Yanence. Their work is characterized by the idealized way of life of the Dutch bourgeoisie. So, in the interior picture "Room in the Dutch House" Peter Jansence is depicted by sunlight cozy room with playing on the floor and on the walls of sunny bunnies. The choice of composition emphasizes the unity of man and the surrounding medium.
Dutch genre tried to reflect the inner world of man in the works. In regular situations, they were able to show the world of experiences. So, Gerard Terborh in the painting "Glass of Lemonade" depicted a barely caught language of gestures, touching hands, meetings with views reveals a whole range of senses and relationships of characters.
The subtlety, truthfulness in the recreation of reality is combined with Dutch masters with inconspicuous and everyday beauty. This feature manifested itself visually in still life. The Dutch was called "Stilleven". In this understanding of the masters saw in inanimate objects a hidden life associated with the life of a person with his life, habits, tastes. Dutch painters have created the impression of natural "disorder" in the location of the things: they showed the cut cake, peeled lemon with a spiral peel, a bad glass of wine, a burning candle, revealed the book - always it seems that someone concerned these items, just that they used them Feels the invisible presence of a person.
The leading masters of the Dutch still life of the first half of the XVII century were Peter Clas 1 And Willem Head. The favorite theme of their still lifes is the so-called "breakfasts". In "Breakfast with Omar" V. Heda (Appendix; Fig. 16) items of various shapes and material - a coffee pot, a glass, lemon, a silver plate. The objects are arranged so as to see the attractiveness and feature of everyone. Various techniques of the Heba exceed the material and the specifics of their invoice; So, the light glare is played differently on the surface of glass and metal. All elements of the composition are combined with light and color. In the "Still Life with a candle" of P. class not only not only the accuracy of the reproduction of material qualities of objects - the composition and lighting give them greater emotional expressiveness. Still lifes class and hedges are similar to each other - this is the mood of intimacy and comfort, peace of mind in the life of the Burgers house, where there is wealth. Still life can be viewed as one of the important topics of Dutch art - the subject of life of a private person. She received his main decision in the genre picture.
Symbolism. Still life
All items in Dutch still life are symbolic. Collections that have been published throughout XVIII<#"justify">o. silky petals near Vase - marks of fracility;
o. the faded flower is a hint of the feeling disappearance;
o. irises - the sign of the Virgin;
o. red flowers - a symbol of the redemant victim of Christ;
o. white lily not only a beautiful flower, but also a symbol of the impassion of the Virgin Mary;
o. carnation - a symbol of the spilled blood of Christ;
o. white tulip - false love.
o. pomegranate - symbol of resurrection, character chastity;
o. apples, peaches, oranges reminded about the fall;
o. wine in a glass or jug \u200b\u200bpersonified the sacrificial blood of Christ;
o. olive - symbol of the world;
o. rotten fruit - a symbol of aging;
o. ear of wheat, ivy - symbol of revival and cycle of life.
o. glass - a symbol of fragility;
o. porcelain - purity;
o. the bottle is a symbol of sin and drunkenness;
o. broken dishes - a symbol of death;
o. inverted or empty glass designates emptiness;
o. knife - symbol of betrayal;
o. silver vessels - the personification of wealth.
o. hourglass - a reminder of the frequency of life;
o. skull - reminder of the inevitability of death;
o. ears of wheat - symbols of revival and cycle of life;
o. bread - the symbol of the body of the Lord;
o. weapons and armor - a symbol of power and power, the designation of what cannot be taken with him into the grave;
o. keys - symbolize power;
o. smoking pipe - a symbol of fleeting and elusive earthly pleasures;
o. a carnival mask - is a sign of the lack of man; irresponsible pleasure;
o. mirrors, glass balls - vanity symbols, reflection sign, irreality.
The foundations of the Dutch realistic landscape were formed throughout the first XVII century. Artists depicted their nature with dunes and canals, houses and villages. They tried to portray the nationality of the landscape, the air atmosphere and the characterity of the year. The masters have increasingly subordinate all the components of the picture of a single tone. They finely felt the colors, skillfully owned the transition from light into the shadow, from the tone to the tone.
The largest representative of the Dutch realistic landscape was Jan Wang Goyen (1596-1656). He worked in Leiden and Hague. The artist loved to portray the valleys and the water surface of the rivers on small canvases. Many Places Goyen left the sky with the clouds. Such is the picture "View of the Vaal River Nimegen", aged in a thin brown-gray range of paints.
Later, the characteristic entity of the landscape changes. It becomes a little wider, more emotional. The specificity remains the same, but the tone acquire depth.
All new features of the landscape style embodied in his paintings Jacob Van Reydal (1629-1682). Depicting the volumetric trees and bushes, the feeling was created that they were put forward on the fore and become more powerful. Magnificently possessing a sense of perspective, Reydal skillfully passed wide plains and surroundings of Holland. The choice of tone and illumination brings focus. Reydal loved and ruins as decorative details, talking about the destruction, the strugnure of earthly existence. "Jewish cemetery" represents a launched area. Reydal did not use success at one time. The realism of his paintings did not correspond to the tastes of society. The artist deservedly enjoyed by the world glory, died by the poor man in Harlem's Laddle.
Portrait painting. France Hals.
One of the great Dutch artists was Frans Hals (about 1580-1666). He was born in the XVII century in Antwerp. A very young artist was hit in Harlem, where he grew up and formed in the manner of School Karel Van Mandera. Harlem was proud of his artist, and led him to the workshop of the famous guests - Rubens and Wang Dequee.
Hals was almost exclusively portrait, but his art meant a lot not only for portrait painting of Holland, but also for the formation of other genres. In the work of Hals, three types of portrait compositions can be distinguished: a group portrait, a customized individual portrait and a special type of portrait image, close by the nature of genre painting.
In 1616, Hals writes the picture of the Banquet of Officers of the Rifle Regiment of St. George, "in which it completely shaves with the traditional scheme of group porter. Creating a very living work, combining characters in the group and giving them various postures, he, as it were, captivated together a portrait with genre painting. The work was successful, and the artist was littered with orders.
His characters hold on the portrait of naturally and freely, their pose, gestures seem unstable, and on the faces the expression should be changed. The most remarkable feature of the creative manner of Hals is the ability to convey character through individual facial expressions and a gesture, as if caught on the fly - "cheerful companion", "Mulatto", "smiling officer." The artist loved emotional states, full speakers. But in this instant, that he captured Hals, always captured the most significant, the core of the image of the "Gypsy", "Malli Baba".
However, in the images of Hals of the very late 30s and 40s, thoughtfulness and sadness, alien to his characters, portrait of Willem Haythheysen, and sometimes slipping a light irony against the artist to them. From the art of Hals gradually leaving the jurisdiction of life and man.
The critical moments have come in Hals painting. In the portraits of Hals, written in the 50s and 60s, the in-depth skill characteristics are combined with a new inner meaning. One of the strongest works of late Hals is a men's portrait from the Metropolitan Museum in New York (1650-1652). The portrait composition is a generation image of the figure, its setting in a clean FAS, a look directed directly to the viewer, the significance of the individual is felt. In the posture of men read cold authorities and arrogant contempt for all. The feeling of self-esteem is connected in it with immeasurable ambition. At the same time, in his eyes, the shade of disappointment unexpectedly captures, as if in this person, regretful about the past - about his youth and youth of his generation, whose ideals are forgotten, and life incentives were faded.
Portraits of Hals 50-60s Much reveal in the Dutch reality of those years. The artist lived a long life, and he had a witness to witness the rebirth of a Dutch society, the disappearance of his democratic spirit. It does not happen by chance now from the fashion of the art of Hals. The late works of Hals clearly reflect the spirit of time, such an alien master, but his own disappointment in the surrounding reality is heard. In some works of these years, the opposite of the personal feelings of the old artist, who has lost the former glory and who has already seen the end of his life path.
Two years before death, in 1664, Hals were written by portraits of regents and recents (trustees) of the Harlemian shelter for the elderly.
In the "Portrait of Regent", everyone combines a sense of disappointment and doom. There is no vitality in the regent as in the early group portraits of Hals. Each alone, everyone exists by itself. Black tones with reddish pink stains creates a tragic atmosphere.
In another emotional key, the "Portrait of Regentsh" was resolved. In almost immovable storage faults, master authorities are felt, and at the same time, in all of them lives deep depression, feeling of impotence and despair in the face of the impending death.
Until the end of the days, Hals kept the infallibility of his skill, and the art of the eighty-year-old painter received penetration and strength.
6. Rembrandt Wang Rhine
Rembrand (1606-1669) is the largest representative of the golden century of Dutch painting. Born in Leiden in 1606. For artistic education, the artist moves to Amsterdam and enters the workshop of Peter Lastman, and then returns to Leiden, where in 1625 he starts an independent creative life. In 1631, Rembrandt finally moved to Amsterdam, and the rest of the Master's life is connected with this city.
Rembrandt's creativity, imbued with the philosophical comprehension of the life and inner world of man. This is the top of the development of the Dutch art of the XVII century. The artistic legacy of Rembrandt is distinguished by the variety of genres. He wrote portraits, still lifes, landscapes, genre scenes, paintings on historical, biblical, mythological topics. But the greatest depth of the artist is achieved in the last years of his life. The uffus has three works of the Great Master. This self-portrait in his youth, a self-portrait in old age, the portrait of the old man (Rabbi) in many later works the artist immerses the entire surface of the canvas in Dusk, focusing the attention of the viewer on the face.
This was depicted by Rembrandt aged 23 years.
The period of moving to Amsterdam was marked in the creative biography of Rembrandt by creating many male and women's etudes
In 1653, experiencing material difficulties, the artist transferred almost all his property to the son of Titus, after which he stated in 1656 on bankruptcy. After the sale of the house and property, the artist moved to the outskirts of Amsterdam, in the Jewish quarter, where he spent the rest of his life. The closest to him in those years, apparently, titus, because His images are most numerous. The death of titus in 1668 became one of the last blows of fate; He himself was not a year later. "Matthew and Angel" (1661). Perhaps the model for Angel was the titus.
The last two decades of the life of Rembrandt were the top of his skill as a portraitist. Models are comrades of the artist (Nicholas Breing
7. Vermeer Delftan Yang
dutch Art Painting Still Life
Vermeer Delftsky Yang (1632-1675) - Dutch painter, the largest master of the Netherlands genre and landscape painting. Worked Vermeer in Delft. As an artist was influenced by the tragically died in the explosion of the powder warehouse of Karel Fabrichus.
Early Vermeer Pictures have elevation of images ( Christ at Matern and Mary ). The work of the master of genre painting Peter de Hooch was a strong influence on the work of Vermeer. The style of this painter in the future finds development in the pictures of Vermeer.
From the second half of the 50s, Vermeer wrote small paintings with one or more figures in the silver light of the house of the house ( Girl with a letter Milk jug maid ). In the late 50s, Vermeer created two masterpieces of landscape painting: a heartfelt picture Stretch with shining, fresh, clean, paints and painting View of the city of Delfta . In the 60s, the work of the Vermeer becomes more refined, and painting is cold. ( Girl with pearl earring).
In the late 60s, the artist often portrayed richly furnished rooms, where ladies and holders are musitizing and lead gallant conversations.
In the last years of the life of the Vermeer, his financial situation has deteriorated greatly. The demand for paintings sharply fell, the painter was forced to take loans to feed eleven children and other family members. Probably, it accelerated the approach of death. It is not known what happened - acute disease, or depression due to finance, but buried Vermeer in 1675 in the family crypt in Delft.
The individual art of the Vermeer after death was not evaluated by contemporaries. Interest in him was revived only in the XIX century, thanks to the activities of the artistic criticism and historian of the art of Etienne Theophil Tore, who "opened" the Vermeer for the general public.
Conclusion
Appeal to real reality helped to expand the artistic possibilities of the art of Holland, enriched its genre theme. If, before the XVII century, biblical and mythological subjects were of great importance in European visual arts, and the other genres were weakly developed, then in Dutch art, the ratio between genres changes sharply. It occurs with the rise of such genres as: household genre, portrait, landscape, still life. The biblical and mythological plots in Dutch art are largely losing the former forms of incarnation and are now treated as household paintings.
With all the achievements, Dutch art carried both some specific features of limitations - a narrow circle of plots and motifs. Another minus: Only some masters sought to find in phenomena their deep base.
But in many composite paintings, portraits of images are of the deepest character, and landscapes show true and real nature. It became a distinctive feature of Dutch art. Thus, painters made a big breakthrough in art, mastering a difficult and difficult ability to write images of the inner world of man and experiences.
Examination gave me the opportunity to test your creative abilities, replenish the stock of theoretical knowledge, learn more deeply about Dutch artists and their works.
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With the celebration of the bourgeois building and calvinism of the malt of monumental-decorative and church art in Holland collapsed. Tasks for the painting of palaces and castles, which put Baroque artists in monarchies, almost did not have places in Holland. The nobility was too weak to ensure the existence of a large decorative art. Calvinism, on the other hand, was against paintings in his temples.
The demand for painting works was nevertheless extremely great. He walked the advantage of individuals, and, moreover, to a large extent from the circles that did not have a major material supply. It develops and becomes a dominant type of small machine paintings designed to hang in modest spaces. Along with the orders, the paintings were even more often performed for the art market, and the trade was widespread. The great demand for the paintings led huge products, and because of their overproduction, many artists had to be seen except for their direct profession, other sources of existence. Outstanding painters often turn out to be gardeners, then the dealers' dealers, then employees (Goyen, walls, Gobbema, etc.).
With regard to the theme and visual techniques in the Dutch painting of the 17th century, the beginning of realism is entirely dominated. The artist was primarily required by the truthful transmission of external forms of the surrounding life in all the variety of its phenomena.
The importance of the personality in the new bourgeois society had its consequence the extremely distribution of the portrait. A long period of struggle, where the winner felt his strength, contributed to this process. The major role played by the different organizations and first of all the rifle societies, caused a special type of group public portrait, which gets widespread development and becomes one of the specific phenomena of Dutch painting. Following the numerous group portraits of shooters, there are similar nature of a group of representatives of certain trading workshops, physician corporations (the so-called "anatomy"), managers are fierce.
The resistance tension ingoing invaders aggravated the national feeling. From the art began not only truthfulness - it should have been depicted, folk people and the situation of today's day, the unaccusted pictures of their native nature, all the consciousness proud of and what was used to see the eye: ships, beautiful cattle, abundance of the dog, flowers. Genre, landscape, animal images and still life became dominant types of topics. A religious painting rejected by the Protestant Church was not excluded, but did not play any major role and acquired a completely different character than in the countries of the ownership of Catholicism. The mystical beginning was supplanted in them with a realistic interpretation of plots, and the paintings of this circle were enjoyed the benefit of the form of household painting. Scenes from ancient history are found as an exception and are used for hints on current political events. As all the allegory, they were successful in narrow circles involved in literary and humanitarian interests.
A typical feature of the Dutch school of this time is a narrow specialization on certain types of subjects. This specialization leads to the differentiation of genres: Some artists develop almost exclusively household scenes from the life of the middle and higher layers of the bourgeoisie, all the attention of others is directed to the peasant life; Among the landscape players, many with difficulty can find something other than the plains, canals, villages and pastures; Others are enthusiating forest motifs, others specialize in the image of the sea. Dutch artists not only put a task of accurate transfer of depicted objects and phenomena, but they strive to give the impression of space, as well as the impact on the forms of enveloping their atmosphere and light. The problem of transmission of light and air is a common and main picturesque quest for the 17th century Dutch school. Thus, painting involuntarily acquires the beginning of emotionality, causing certain sentiment from the audience.
The first quarter of the 17th century is for the painting of the Holland in the transition period, when only the marked features have not yet received their full development. From the thematic side, the main types of Dutch painting - landscape and life - while relatively few differentiated. And genre and landscape elements in the paintings of this time are often equivalent. In purely species images, there are many conventions both in the overall construction of the landscape and flavor.
Along with continuing live local realistic traditions, Italy is strongly influenced by Italy, in particular both its manneristic flows and realistic art of Caravaggio. The typical representative of the last direction was Honthorst (1590-1656). The impact on the Dutch worked at the beginning of the 17th century by the German artist Adam Elsheimer (1578-1610) is also very noticeable. The romanticism of the interpretation of those selected from the Bible or from the ancient literature, as well as well-known orientalism (attraction to the east), which was expressed in the selection of types, robes and other parts, are combined in its work with an increased desire for decorative effects. As the largest artist of this group, Peter Lastman nominated (1583-1633).
France Hals. The first time by the artist, with the work of which the Dutch school enters into a period of complete heyday, is Frans Hals (approx. 1580-1666). His activity was held almost entirely in Harlem. Here for about 1616, he is put forward as the advanced largest portrait and retains its role in this area until the end of life. With the advent of Hals strictly realistic and acutely individual Dutch portrait reaches maturity. All timid, small, naturalistic, distinguishing its predecessors is overcome.
The initial phase of the art of Hals is not clarified. We immediately see the master decisive to the parent portrait problem. He writes one after another picture depicting the arrows of the Corporation of St. Adriana and St. George (Garlem, Museum of France Hals), where a crowded multiplied assembly and brightness of each of those present are also transmitted with an inimitable ease. The picturesque skill and the compositional resourcefulness of the groups go in these portraits hand in hand with extraordinary sharpness. Hals is not a psychologist: his models usually passes for him by. And he writes for the most part of the people whose whole life proceeds in conditions of intense, active activities, but not too deepening psychological order. But Hals, like no one, catches the appearance of these people, knows how to grab the most fleeting, but at the same time the most characteristic of the facial expression, in the pose, in gestures. Cheerful in nature, he seeks to capture every image in a moment of revival, joy, and no one with such subtlety and variety, as he, does not pass laughter. Portrait of an officer (1624, London, Wallace collection), swaying on the "Gytegeaisen" chair (end of the 1630s, Brussels, art gallery), "Gypsy" (end of 1620, Louvre), or the so-called "Harlem Witch" - Mallet Bobbe (Berlin) may be called as characteristic examples of its acute and often foul art. Men, women, children are portrayed by him with the same sensation of a lively image ("Portrait of a young man with a glove", approx. 1650, Hermitage). The Hals technique itself contributes to the impression of liveliness, unusually free and growing over the years in its latitude. The decorative colorfulness of early work is subsequently died, the flavor becomes silver, the freedom of ownership of black and white tones speaks about the skill that can afford to afford bold scenic donings. In some works, impressionistic techniques are scheduled. Hals writes countless individual portraits until the recent years of life, but cums again by group portraits. Generalized by color, discovering the elder weakness of hand in the figure, they remain nevertheless extremely expressive. Their characters represent groups of Elders Laddle (1664, Harlem, Museum of France Hals), where the eighty-year-old artist found himself the last shelter. His art was too advanced in his time to ensure material success in the environment of the then bourgeois society.
Rembrandt. The generation is later than Hals, against the background of an approved Dutch realism grows by a giant figure of Rembrandt (1606-1669). His creativity is the greatest pride of Holland, but the meaning of this master is not limited to the framework of one nationality. Rembrandt is represented by one of the largest realist artists of all time and at the same time one of the greatest masters of painting.
Rembrandt Harmens Wang Rhine was born in 1606 in Leiden and was the son of the prosperous owner of the flour mill. He early discovered the attraction to painting and after a short stay in Leiden University was completely given to art. Upon completion of the usual three-year training period, Rembrandt went to improve in Amsterdam, which became a student of Lastman. Having learned a number of techniques of the latter, he perceived and the influence of the realistic direction of Karavagist.
Returning to Leiden, Rembrandt began working as an independent master, had a great success, and this success prompted him to move to Amsterdam, where he settled since 1631. Here Rembrandt very soon became a fashionable artist, filled with orders and surrounded by many students. At the same time, it was revealed and the brightest time in his personal life.
In 1634, he married a young, Milovoid girl of Sasquia Wang-Ulena Borg, belonging to the visible bourgeois surname of Amsterdam and brought him into the dowry major state. It increased the already increasing wealth of prosperous master, provided him with material independence and at the same time allowed the passion for collecting works of art and all sorts of antique things.
Already during the stay of Rembrandt in Leiden and especially after the relocation in Amsterdam, the main features of his art affect with all certainty. The circle of his images covers religious stories, history, mythology, portrait, genre, animal world, landscape, still life. The focus of Rembrandt still has a person, psychologically correct transmission of characters and mental movements. This interest in psychological problems is manifested in countless portraits, as well as in the favorite Rembrandt biblical topics giving it a desired reason for the image of human relations and characters. The wonderful amazing gift of the narrative allows it to carry the audience not only the expressiveness of the images, but also the inhibitory of the filing of the selected plot.
Rembrandt Images detect its deeply realistic understanding of the tasks of art. He constantly studies nature and vigorously peering into all forms of surrounding reality. Its attention is attracted to everything in what the characterity is pronounced: the expression of people, gestures, movements, costumes. He fixes his observations in drawings, then in the picturesque etudes. The latter are mainly on its early period. The acquired knowledge of the form and its expressiveness becomes an integral part of all the composite works of Rembrandt and informs them an extraordinary truthfulness.
In parallel with exacerbate attention to the essence of the phenomena, Rembrandt is entirely absorbed in purely picturesque problems and mainly the problem of lighting. The uniqueness and skill of her decisions brought him the glory of the greatest painter. The sophistication of Rembrandt Light in combination with coloristic effects is a high artistic value in the masters' paintings. But this is not only self-sufficient decorative value. Rembrandta interpretation of lighting effects is at the same time one of the main means of identifying the nature of images. His composition is based on the ratio of illuminated and shadow plans. Their distribution that is allocating some forms and the scraasing other attracts the attention of the viewer to what is particularly essential for narrative or characteristics and thereby enhances expressiveness. The scenic side is organically connected with the content.
Rembrandt's artistic activity from beginning to end is imbued with internal unity. But his creative path allows you to distinguish between a number of clearly pronounced stages characterized by some specific features.
After years of apprenticeship and the first independent steps, such a new stage are the 1630s. During this period, Rembrandt is strong, on the one hand, romantic elements and fantasy, on the other - the formal features of the Baroque art. The impression of fiction is caused mainly by the effect of lighting, far from always dependent on a certain source, but generated by the radiating ability of the items themselves. For the baroque trends of the Rembrandt art of this period, the initiative of the artistic language, dynamism and pathos of compositions, in part, the sharpness of the flavor. At this stage, Rembrandt is constantly the tendency to theatricalization of images, prompting the masters to write himself and its close-fitted in lush raincoats, helmets, turbans, berets or depict Saskoviah in the form of biblical heroines, then an ancient goddess.
To custom portrait, it is suitable, of course, otherwise. The characteristics distinguish their liveliness, the skill of forming forms, the search for elegacity and at the same time, the famous rigor justify its then glory as a portraitist. A group portrait known as the "Anatomy of Doctor Tulip" (1632, Hague, Mauritzheis,) where the ability to unite depicted people's attention to the lecture, read by a tulite at an anatomical table, was joined by the features, was the first particularly loud success of Rembrandt.
With the extreme abundance of portrait works falling on the decade under consideration, Rembrandt found time for a fascinating figured, narrative painting. "Angel leaving the Tovia family" (1637, Louvre) can serve as an example of the marked baroque features of this period. The plot borrowed from the Bible, where the moment is submitted when an angel, who helped the son of Tovia to heal his father, leaves the family-paid family, is saturated with elements of the genre. Another definitely a genome approach to the topic is captured in the Hermitage picture "Parable about the grapeters" (1637). In this case, the evangelical parable turns into a purely realistic scene of calculating the rich owner with workers. The loyalty of gestures and expressions of individuals here is not less characteristic of Rembrandt than the picturesque problem of the transmission of light, flowing into small windows and serves in the depths of a high adhesive room.
Picturesque skill and characteristic of Rembrandt in the 1630s greenish-golden flavor manifest themselves with all the fullness in one of the most famous pictures - Hermitage "Dana" (1636). On the sensation of life in the transfer of the body, in a gesture, in the expressness of the face, it is unusually brightly revealed by the realism of the artistic concept of the master at this time of his creative development.
Since the beginning of the 1640s, Rembrandt's creativity joins a new phase, lasting until the middle of the next decade. The independence of an understanding of the master of the tasks of art, his desire for deep life truth, interest in psychological problems, over the years I had ever more and more, revealed in Rembrandte the largest creative personality, far away the culture of the bourgeois society surrounding it. The deep content of Rembrandt art was the latter inaccessible. It wanted the art of realistic, but more superficial. The originality of the picturesque techniques of Rembrandt in turn went wrong with a generally accepted careful, somewhat sliming manner of the letter. As the times of the national heroic struggle for independence was moved into the past, in the tastes of the dominant environment, the trends towed to the elegacity and known idealization of the image. The disgracement of Rembrandt's views, supported by his material independence, led him to a complete discrepancy with society. This gap with the bourgeois medium affected with all certainty due to the order of the master of a large group portrait of the Guild of Amsterdam shooters. The picture (1642, Amsterdam), executed as a result of this order, did not satisfy customers and remained incomprehensible even artistic circles. Instead of a more or less ordinary portrait group, Rembrandt gave a picture of the speeches of the armed squad, riding the sounds of the drum behind his leaders. Portrait characteristic depicted retreated to the background before the scene dynamic. The widely conceived painting of contrasts of lighting reported a picture of a romantic character, thoring and its conditional name - "Night Watch".
The conflict with the dominant medium and the sharp due to this fall of orders did not affect the creative energy of the master. It also did not affect the change in the family conditions of Rembrandt, who lost his favorite wife, who had a permanent inspirational of his female images, was not reflected on it. A few years later her place occupies another. Appearing first in the humble role of the servant, Gendrick Stoffels then becomes the faithful girlfriend of the Master's life and provides him with peace and silence of family comfort.
The coming period was favorable for the development of Rembrandt's art. Zador youth disappears from his work. It becomes concentrated, balanced and even deeper. The complexity of compositions and pathos is replaced by simplicity. Sincerity of feelings is not violated by the search for external effects. The problem of lighting still owns the masters. Coloring becomes hot. Golden yellow and red tones dominate it. Religious in the nature of the subject, but purely genre on the interpretation of the plot, the Hermitage picture "Holy Family" (1645) is extremely characteristic of this time.
Along with biblical genre compositions, this period is replete with a new image of the image of reality - landscapes for Rembrandta. Having gave in some cases to tribute to their romantic entrepreneurs, he creates along with it exciting the strict realism of the attachment approach of an untrined Dutch village. Little "Winter View" (1646, Kassel), in the light of a clear frosty day, the peasant courtyard and several figures on the stroit of the frozen channel, according to the subtleties of the feeling and veracity of the visual perception, serves as one of the most perfect samples of the realistic landscape of the Dutch.
In Portraight, Rembrandt is now free when choosing models and writes the benefit of a person with pronounced individuality. This is mainly older women and eagle-Jews. But with the same sharpness, he turns out to be able to transfer the charm of a young female person or charm of youthful appearance. All the petty is inferior in these portraits of generalized, but at the same time extraordinary acute submission of the image. This largely contributes to the increasing latitude of technical execution manners.
Despite the extensiveness and artistic value of Rembrandt created during this period, the financial situation of Rembrandt was extremely difficult for the mid-1650s. Due to the fall in the number of orders, a difficult sales of paintings and, in particular, the carelessness of the master in the conduct of their affairs Rembrandt experienced large material difficulties. The debt associated with the acquisition during the life of Saskiya is expensive at home, threatened with a complete ruin. Attempts to get out of the debt could only stop the catastrophe, but she still broke out. In the summer of 1656, Rembrandt was declared insolvent and all his property was sold from the auction. Elevated familiar bed, he was forced to move with his family to the poor Jewish quarter of the trading capital, and here in a sharply felt lack of his last days.
These adversity, as well as the comprehensive Rembrandt then misfortune - the death of Gendrik, the death of the only son of the titus, were powerless to stop the further growth of his genius. The end of the 1650s and 1660s is the most ambitious phase of Rembrandt's creativity. It represents the synthesis of all of its preceding psychological and picturesque quests. Exceptional strength of images, simplicity of design, the intensity of the hot flavor and the scope of picturesque texture constitute the main features of this period. These qualities are equally manifested both in portraits and in biblical compositions. Created at this time group portrait of "Sindics" (elders of the cloudy shop, 1662, Amsterdam) is deservedly considered one of the vertices of Rembrandt's creativity). Acute psychological characteristic, simplicity of construction, which is uncomplicated by the rhythm of lines and masses, as well as a meager in terms of the number of colors, but the intensive color is summarized the entire preceding path of Rembrandt-portraity. In the field of biblical painting, the same role belongs to the "return of the Prodigal Son", located in the Hermitage. The scene of reconciliation renounced in his infertility of the Son and the All-Friendly Father on simplicity, drama and subtleties of the transfer of human experiences remains unsurpassed in world art. It is difficult for her to find anything equal to the saturation of the tone and latitude of the letter.
"The prodigal son" is one of the most recent paintings by the master and, apparently, dates back to 1669 - the year of the death of Rembrandt. This death passed completely unnoticed, and only many years later, in the 18th century, the understanding of the art of this great artist began to grow.
The value of Rembrandt is due to the painting of the master of his huge heritage as graphics. All the above properties of Rembrandt's works have affected the graphic works no less bright than in painting, and moreover, both in the original drawings and in the field of printed graphics, engravings. In recently, Rembrandt is the greatest master of the etch.
For its characteristics, the etchings have no less meaning than paintings. The distinguished Rembrandt depth of psychological analysis, the expressive realism of the images and the perfection of the ownership of art technician affected the long row of wonderful sheets, thematically even more diverse than the painting of the master. Especially famous belong to "Christ, healing patients" (the so-called "sheet in a hundred florines", approx. 1649), "Three Crosses" (1653), portraits of Lutma (1656), Harling (1655), Six (1647 ), as well as landscapes known as "Three True (1643) and" Gold Weigher's Manor "(1651).
No less significant place in the graphic heritage of Rembrandt takes pictures. The acuity and peculiarity of the Rembrandt perception of the surrounding world affected these numerous and varied sheets with a special force. The manner draw, as the picturesque manner of Rembrandt, evolves noticeably throughout the creative development of the wizard. If the early drawings of Rembrandt are worked in the details and are quite complex in composition, then in a more mature period, it performed them with a wide picturesque manner, extremely concise and simple. Rembrandt usually painted with a goose or reed pen and was able to achieve with the most simple techniques of exceptional expressiveness. His drawings, even when they are minute sketches of some ordinary motive, are a complete integer, quite transmitting all the variety of nature.
The art of Rembrandt as a whole remained the incomprehensible contemporaries. During the success of the school of students, of which Ferdinand Pain (1616-168-1680), Herbrandan van Den Den, acquired the greatest fame (1621-1674) and Art de Helder (1645-1727). Having learned the theme, composite techniques and types of teachers, they did not go all the same in their figure painting on the external imitation of Rembrandt receptions. The lively influence of the master, opposite that, definitely affected the numerous landscape players adjacent to him - Philips Kindka (1619-1688), Domera (1622-1700) and others. Regardless of this, its development of the problem of light has become the cornerstone for the development of all subsequent Dutch painting.
Full recognition of the creativity of Rembrandt gets, however, only in the 19th century. And from now on, it does not cease to be one of the highest samples of realistic and at the same time the picturesque embodiment of images.