The message about the reforms of Peter 1 is brief. Financial reforms of Peter I - in brief

Reforms of Peter I: a new page in the development of the Russian Empire.

Peter I can be confidently called one of the greatest Russian emperors, because it was he who began the reorganization of all spheres of society, the army and the economy, which was necessary for the country, which played a significant role in the development of the empire.
This topic is quite extensive, but we will talk about the reforms of Peter I briefly.
The Emperor carried out a number of important reforms at that time, which should be discussed in more detail. And so what reforms of Peter I changed the empire:
Regional reform
Judicial reform
Military reform
Church reform
Financial reform
And now it is necessary to talk about each of the reforms of Peter I more separately.

Regional reform

In 1708, the district of Peter I divided the entire empire into eight large provinces, which were led by governors. Provinces, in turn, were divided into fifty provinces.
This reform was carried out in order to strengthen the vertical of imperial power, as well as to improve the provision of the Russian army.

Judicial reform

The Supreme Court was the Senate, as well as the Justitz Collegium. The provinces still had courts of appeal. However, the main reform is that now the court was completely separated from the administration.

Military reform

The emperor paid special attention to this reform, since he understood that the army of the newest model was something without which the Russian Empire could not become the strongest in Europe.
The first thing to be done is to reorganize the regimental structure of the Russian army according to the European model. In 1699, a massive recruitment was made, followed by the exercises of the new army according to all the standards of the strongest armies of European states.
Perth I began the decisive training of Russian officers. If at the beginning of the eighteenth century foreign specialists stood on the officers' ranks of the empire, then after the reforms their place began to be taken by domestic officers.
No less important was the opening of the first Naval Academy in 1715, which later gave Russia a powerful fleet, but before that moment it did not exist. One year later, the Emperor issued a Military Regulations, which regulated the duties and rights of soldiers.
As a result, in addition to a powerful new fleet consisting of battleships, Russia also received a new regular army, not inferior to the armies of European states.

Church reform

Quite serious changes have also taken place in the church life of the Russian Empire. If earlier the church was an autonomous unit, then after the reforms it was subordinate to the emperor.
The first reforms began in 1701, but the church finally came under state control only in 1721 after the publication of a document called "Spiritual Regulations." This document also said that during hostilities for the needs of the state, church property can be seized.
The secularization of church lands began, but only partial, and only Empress Catherine II completed this process.

Financial reform

The wars started by Emperor Peter I required huge funds, which at that time were not in Russia, and in order to find them, the emperor began to reform the financial system of the state.
First, a tax was imposed on taverns, where a huge amount of moonshine was sold. In addition, lighter coins began to be minted, which meant damage to the coin.
In 1704, the penny became the main currency, and not money, as it was before.
If earlier the courtyards were screwed up with taxes, then after the reforms every soul was screwed up with taxes - that is, every male resident of the Russian Empire. Such strata as the clergy, the nobility and, of course, the Cossacks were exempted from paying the poll tax.
The financial reform can be called quite successful, as it significantly increased the size of the imperial treasury. From 1710 to 1725, the size of income increased by as much as three times, which means a fairly large success.

Reforms in industry and trade

The needs of the new army increased significantly, because of which the emperor was forced to begin active construction of manufactories. From abroad, the emperor attracted qualified specialists to reform the industry.
In 1705, the first silver smelting plant began operating in Russia. In 1723, an iron-making plant began to work in the Urals. By the way, it is in its place that the city of Yekaterinburg is now.
After the construction of St. Petersburg, he became the trading capital of the empire.

Education reform

The emperor understood that Russia was to become an educated state, and paid special attention to this.
From 1701 to 1821, a large number of schools were opened: mathematics, engineering, artillery, medical, navigation. The first maritime academy was opened in St. Petersburg. The first gymnasium was opened already in 1705.
In each province, the emperor built two completely free schools, where children could receive primary, compulsory education.
These were the reforms of Peter I, and this is how they influenced the development of the Russian Empire. Many reforms are now considered not entirely successful, but it cannot be denied that after their implementation, Russia has made a big step forward.

The results of the reforms of Peter 1 are one of the most difficult and controversial issues in the national historical science. We can say that in historiography there were established at one time the opposite of the first Russian emperor. Some saw him as a transformer of Russia and believed that he was responsible for the inclusion of the state in the system of European powers (this was believed, in particular, by the representatives of the direction of the Westernizers), while others, on the contrary, emphasized that his reforms broke the traditional foundations of the life of Russian society and led to a partial the loss of their national identity (this point of view was held, in particular, by the authors of the philosophical trend of the Slavophiles).

Executive Board Overview

The results of the reforms of Peter 1 should be considered in the context of the peculiarities of his reign. These years turned out to be very difficult for the history of Russia, since that was a transitional time. The emperor waged a war for the country's access to the Baltic Sea and at the same time carried out the transformation of the entire socio-political system in the state. However, the disadvantage of his activities was that he carried out his transformations with the expectation that these were temporary measures to govern the country during the war. However, later it turned out that these temporary measures were more durable than ever. But the ruler himself acted, as they say, hastily, so the results of the reforms of Peter 1 turned out to be very controversial in the sense that they were very often introduced in a hurry and by administrative methods, without taking into account the specifics of certain areas that were subject to changes.

The essence of transformation

All the measures of the new ruler were aimed at ensuring Russia's victory during the Northern War with Sweden for access to the Baltic Sea. Therefore, all measures were aimed at improving public administration and management. But the king was also interested in the country being included in the system of European states, as he understood that access to the sea would inevitably lead to a change in the geopolitical position of the state. Therefore, he strove to somehow equalize the level of development of the country with Western Europe. And the results of the reforms of Peter 1 in this area can be called controversial, at least historians and researchers differ in their assessments of their effectiveness. On the one hand, borrowing in government, administration and culture can be called an important step for the Europeanization of the state, but at the same time, their haste and even some disorder led to the fact that only a very narrow stratum of nobles adopted Western European norms. The position of the bulk of the population has not changed.

Significance of political change

The results of the reforms of Peter 1 should be briefly outlined as follows: Russia gained access to the Baltic Sea, became an empire, and its ruler became an emperor, she became part of European states and began to play a leading role in the international arena. The main result, of course, is that the country received a fundamentally new status, so it is not surprising that the tsar embarked on such cardinal and profound transformations, realizing that the state should develop in its own way, but he adhered to European standards. First of all, of course, they were talking about the creation of a new bureaucratic system and the corresponding legislation.

In this direction, the results of the reforms of Peter 1 should be briefly noted as follows: in general, the emperor achieved his goal. He created a management system that existed without fundamental changes until the February Revolution. This suggests that the measures of the ruler to transform the state machine were in place and were carried out at the right time. Of course, Russian reality made its own adjustments, which the emperor himself took into account and understood when he introduced his innovations into management and administration.

Results of economic transformation

Negative results of the reforms of Peter 1 also cannot be discounted. After all, the transformations were carried out due to the increased exploitation of the population, and in this case we are talking about all strata of society, from the serfs to the noblemen-military personnel. There is no doubt that large military spending led to serious economic and social problems. Nevertheless, the ruler took a number of measures to promote the development of the country's economy. So, he encouraged the development of industry, contributed to the development of factories, the development of mineral deposits. He encouraged trade and urban life, realizing that the export and import of goods largely depended on this.

However, all these measures had a downside. The fact is that, while encouraging the development of trade, the emperor at the same time imposed high taxes on merchants. Manufactures and factories were based on serf labor: whole villages were attributed to them, the inhabitants of which were attached to production.

Social change

The reforms of Peter 1, the results, the consequences of which actually changed the external appearance of the country, affected the second quarter of the 18th century. Most historians believe that under him the layers were finally formed largely thanks to the famous "Table of Ranks", which consolidated the gradation of officials and military personnel. In addition, under him the final registration of serfdom in Russia took place. At the same time, many researchers are not inclined to consider these changes fundamental, believing that they were a natural consequence of the previous stage of the country's development. Some point out that the changes have affected only the top of society, and the rest of the population has not undergone any changes.

Culture

The reforms of Peter I, the reasons, the results of which should be considered in the context of the general historical situation in the country in the second quarter of the 18th century, perhaps most noticeably affected the cultural image of the state. Perhaps this is due to the fact that these changes were the most obvious. In addition, the introduction of Western European customs and norms into traditional Russian life was too different from the way of life that society was used to leading over previous generations. The main goal of the emperor was not so much to change the clothes, the rules of behavior of the nobility, but to make European cultural institutions effective for Russian life and reality.

But the main results of the reforms of Peter 1 in this direction left much to be desired, at least in the first decades of his transformative activities. The main results were already evident during the reign of his successors, especially under Catherine II. Under the emperor, the institutions and institutions he introduced were not as effective as he would have liked. He wanted the nobles to study, receive a good education, since the country needed professional personnel for the development, first of all, of industry and economy. However, most of the nobles preferred to lead their usual way of life, and only a few really accepted the Tsar's reforms in this direction. And yet, the so-called nestlings of Petrov's nest played a large role in the transformative activities of the ruler, and in many respects from their generation those who later determined the cultural and educational policy of the ruler's successors grew up.

Military sphere

It is difficult to overestimate the results, the significance of the reforms of Peter 1 in the transformation of the army. It was he who created that regular Russian army that won so many brilliant victories in the 18th century. It was an army of the European model, which could successfully compete with the troops of other states. Instead of the old system, the emperor introduced a recruiting system for recruiting soldiers. This meant that a certain number of households had to supply a certain number of soldiers to the army. This new system existed for quite a long time, until the second half of the 19th century, when, during the reign of Alexander II, it was replaced by a system of universal conscription. The vitality of the tsar's military transformations testifies to the fact that these measures at this stage of historical development corresponded to the tasks and needs of the country.

The importance of building a fleet

The results of the reforms of Peter I, the pros and cons of which, perhaps, can be divided equally, were especially pronounced in the military sphere. In addition to creating an army, the emperor deserves credit for organizing a permanent regular navy, which brilliantly showed itself already during the Northern War with Sweden, when it won a number of major victories at sea. Thanks to the transformative activities of the tsar in this direction, Russia has become a world maritime power. Despite the fact that under the tsar's closest successors the construction of ships was suspended, nevertheless, already in the second half of the 18th century, especially under Catherine II, the Russian fleet again showed itself in a brilliant way in a number of wars. The merit of the king lies in the fact that he took care of creating a fleet with a view to the future. He not only built ships for immediate needs, but it was he who intended to make Russia a maritime power, which he succeeded in doing.

The role of diplomacy

The positive results of the reforms of Peter I also consist in the fact that it was under him that Russia reached the level of international diplomacy, that is, it began to play one of the leading roles in the international arena. Thanks to his reign, the country has become a participant in the largest and most important international events, without her participation there has not been a meeting of a single congress. Under the emperor, a circle of people was formed, which laid the foundation for a galaxy of Russian diplomats who successfully represented our country on the international arena. This was all the more necessary because at the time in question, as well as in the following decades, Russia participated in all major wars in Europe, and almost all conflicts on the mainland affected its interests in one way or another. In this scenario, there was a need for experienced and European educated diplomats. And we can say with confidence that this one was created just during the reign of the emperor.

Succession problem

The positive and negative results of the reforms of Peter I can, perhaps, be divided equally. The advantages have already been mentioned above, but here it is necessary to mention one significant disadvantage, which had an extremely deplorable effect on the subsequent country. The fact is that in connection with the notorious, the king issued a decree, according to which the ruler himself had to appoint a successor to himself. However, the emperor himself, dying, did not have time to draw up wills, which subsequently led to the so-called which negatively affected not only the internal political development of the country, but also its position in the international arena. The constant change of rulers, the ups and downs of parties, supporters of one or another contender each time led to a change in the foreign and domestic policy of development. And only Paul I at the end of the 18th century canceled this decree on succession to the throne, so that henceforth the eldest son of the reigning emperor became the heir to the Russian throne.

General conclusions

As a conclusion, it should be said that there were probably more positive results than negative ones. The fact that most of his transformations survived for the next two centuries, and his successors considered it necessary to follow his course of government, suggests that the emperor's reform activities corresponded to the needs of the country. The results of the reforms of Peter 1, the table of which is presented below, prove that the tsar's measures to modernize the country were profound, despite the fact that they were dictated by military needs.

Activities	Positive results	Negative results
Political and administrative sphere	Creation of a new state and administrative system, a bureaucracy that meets the needs of the country.	Lack of elaboration of reforms.
Economic and military areas	Creation of a regular army and navy.	The dual nature of economic reforms: support for trade on the one hand, and tax increases on the other.
Social and cultural spheres	Creation of new educational institutions, borrowing of advanced technologies, finalization of the social structure of society.	Inadequacy of reforms, mechanical transfer of foreign models into Russian reality.

So, we can say that the transformative activity of the first Russian emperor as a whole corresponded to the needs of his time, as evidenced by the fact that his reforms were preserved in subsequent centuries.

Reforms of Peter the Great

During the reign, reforms were carried out in all areas of the country's state life. The transformations covered almost all aspects of life: economy, domestic and foreign policy, science, everyday life, government.

Basically, the reforms were aimed not at the interests of individual estates, but the country as a whole: its prosperity, well-being and familiarization with Western European civilization. The goal of the reforms was for Russia to acquire the role of one of the leading world powers, capable of competing with Western countries militarily and economically. Deliberately used violence has become the main tool for carrying out reforms. In general, the process of reforming the state was associated with an external factor - the need for Russia to access the seas, as well as with an internal one - the process of modernization of the country.

Military reform of Peter 1

Since 1699

The essence of transformations: The introduction of conscription, the creation of the navy, the establishment of the Military Collegium, which was in charge of all military affairs. Introduction with the help of the "Table of Ranks" military ranks, uniform for the whole of Russia. Severe discipline was established in the troops and in the navy, and corporal punishment was widely used to maintain it. Introduction of military regulations. Military-industrial enterprises were created, as well as military educational institutions.

The result of the reform: through reforms, the emperor was able to create a strong regular army, numbering up to 212 thousand people by 1725 and a strong navy. Subdivisions were created in the army: regiments, brigades and divisions, in the navy - squadrons. A large number of military victories were won. These reforms (although ambiguously assessed by various historians) created a springboard for the further successes of Russian weapons.

Public administration reforms Peter 1

(1699-1721 years)

The essence of transformations: Creation of the Near Chancellery (or Consilium of Ministers) in 1699. It was transformed in 1711 into the Governing Senate. Creation of 12 collegia, with a specific area of ​​activity and authority.

The result of the reform: The state administration system has become more perfect. The activities of most state bodies became regulated, the collegiums had a clearly delineated area of ​​activity. Supervisory bodies were created.

Provincial (regional) reform of Peter 1

(1708-1715 and 1719-1720)

The essence of transformations: Peter 1, at the initial stage of the reform, divided Russia into eight provinces: Moscow, Kiev, Kazan, Ingermandland (later St. Petersburg), Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Azov, Siberian. They were under the control of governors in charge of the troops stationed in the province. And also the governors possessed full administrative and judicial power. At the second stage of the reform, the provinces were divided into 50 provinces, which were ruled by voivods, and those, in turn, were divided into districts, under the leadership of zemstvo commissars. The governors lost their administrative power and dealt with judicial and military issues.

The result of the reform: There was a centralization of power. Local governments have almost completely lost their influence.

Judicial reform of Peter 1

(1697, 1719, 1722 years)

The essence of transformations: The formation of new judicial bodies by Peter 1: the Senate, the Justitz Collegium, the Hofgerichts, the lower courts. Judicial functions were also performed by all colleagues, except Foreign. The judges were separated from the administration. The trial of kissing people (a kind of jury trial) was canceled, the principle of the inviolability of the unconvicted person was lost.

The result of the reform: many judicial authorities and persons who carried out judicial activities (the sovereign himself, governors, voivods, etc.) added confusion and confusion to the proceedings, the introduced possibility of "knocking out" testimony under torture created fertile ground for abuse and bias. At the same time, they established the adversarial nature of the process and the need for the sentence to be based on specific articles of the law, in accordance with the case under consideration.

Church reform of Peter 1

(1700-1701; 1721 years)

The essence of transformations: After Patriarch Adrian died in 1700, the institution of the patriarchate was essentially liquidated. 1701 - the administration of church and monastery lands was reformed. The Emperor restored the Monastic Order, which controlled church revenues and the trial of the monastic peasants. 1721 - Spiritual regulations are adopted, which actually deprived the church of independence. To replace the patriarchate, the Holy Synod was created, whose members were subordinate to Peter 1, to whom they were appointed. Church property was often taken away and spent on the needs of the sovereign.

The result of the reform: Church reform led to the almost complete subordination of the clergy to secular authority. In addition to the elimination of the patriarchate, many of the bishops and ordinary clergymen were persecuted. The church was no longer able to pursue an independent spiritual policy and partly lost its authority in society.

Financial reform of Peter 1

The essence of transformations: Many new (including indirect) taxes were introduced, monopolizing the sale of tar, alcohol, salt and other goods. Damage (minting a coin of less weight and reducing the content of silver in it) of the coin. The penny became the main coin. The introduction of the poll tax, which replaced the household taxation.

The result of the reform: Increase of state treasury revenues several times. But first: it was achieved due to the impoverishment of the bulk of the population. Second, most of these incomes were stolen.

The results of the reforms of Peter 1

The reforms of Peter 1 marked the formation of an absolute monarchy.

The transformations have significantly increased the efficiency of state administration and served as the main lever for the modernization of the country. Russia has become a Europeanized country and a member of the European Community of Nations. Industry and commerce developed rapidly, and great advances began to appear in technical training and science. An authoritarian rule was being established, the role of the sovereign and his influence on all spheres of the life of society and the state increased enormously.

The cost of Peter 1's reforms

The manifold increased taxes led to the impoverishment and enslavement of the bulk of the population.

In Russia, a cult of institutions developed, and the race for ranks and positions turned into a national disaster.

The main psychological support of the Russian state - the Orthodox Church at the end of the 17th century was shaken in its foundations and gradually lost its significance.

Instead of a civil society with a market economy emerging in Europe, Russia by the end of the reign of Peter I represented a military-police state with a state-controlled monopolized serf economy.

Weakening of the contact of the government with the people. It soon became clear that the majority did not sympathize with the Europeanization program. In carrying out its reforms, the government was forced to act cruelly.

The cost of the transformations turned out to be prohibitively high: in carrying out them, the monarch did not take into account either the sacrifices brought to the altar of the fatherland, or with the national traditions, or with the memory of ancestors.

Reforms of Peter I - transformations in state and public life, carried out during the reign of Peter I in Russia. All state activities of Peter I can be conditionally divided into two periods: 1696-1715 and 1715-1725.

The peculiarity of the first stage was haste and not always well thought out character, which was explained by the conduct of the Northern War. The reforms were aimed primarily at raising funds for the war, were carried out by force and often did not lead to the desired result. In addition to state reforms, at the first stage, extensive reforms were carried out with the aim of modernizing the way of life. In the second period, the reforms were more systematic.

A number of historians, for example V.O. Klyuchevsky, pointed out that the reforms of Peter I were not something fundamentally new, but were only a continuation of those transformations that were carried out during the 17th century. Other historians (for example, Sergei Soloviev), on the contrary, emphasized the revolutionary nature of Peter's reforms.

Historians who analyzed Peter's reforms hold different views on his personal participation in them. One group believes that Peter did not play the main role (which was attributed to him as tsar) both in the formulation of the reform program and in the process of their implementation. Another group of historians, on the contrary, writes about the great personal role of Peter I in carrying out certain reforms.

Public administration reforms

See also: Senate (Russia) and Collegiums (Russian Empire)

At first, Peter I did not have a clear program of reforms in the sphere of government. The emergence of a new state institution or a change in the administrative-territorial administration of the country was dictated by the conduct of wars, which required significant financial resources and the mobilization of the population. The system of power inherited by Peter I did not allow collecting enough funds for reorganizing and increasing the army, building a fleet, building fortresses and St. Petersburg.

From the first years of Peter's rule, there was a tendency towards a decrease in the role of the ineffective Boyar Duma in governing the state. In 1699, under the tsar, the Near Chancellery, or Consilium (Council) of Ministers, was organized, consisting of 8 proxies who controlled individual orders. This was the prototype of the future Governing Senate, formed on February 22, 1711. The last mentions of the Boyar Duma date back to 1704. A certain operating mode was established in the Consilia: each minister had special powers, reports and minutes of meetings appear. In 1711, instead of the Boyar Duma and the Consilia, which replaced it, the Senate was established. Peter formulated the main task of the Senate in the following way: “Look at the expenses in the whole state, and set aside unnecessary, and especially vain ones. How money can be collected, before money is the artery of war. "

Created by Peter for the current management of the state during the absence of the tsar (at that time the tsar went on the Prut campaign), the Senate, consisting of 9 people (presidents of the collegia), gradually turned from a temporary into a permanently operating higher government institution, which was fixed by the Decree of 1722. He controlled justice, was in charge of trade, fees and expenses of the state, supervised the serviceability of the nobles serving military service, he was transferred to the functions of the Discharge and Ambassadorial orders.

Decisions in the Senate were made collectively, at a general meeting and were supported by the signatures of all members of the highest state body. If one of the 9 senators refuses to sign the decision, then the decision was considered invalid. Thus, Peter I delegated part of his powers to the Senate, but at the same time assigned personal responsibility to its members.

Simultaneously with the Senate, the fiscal position appeared. The duty of the Ober-fiscal under the Senate and fiscal in the provinces was to secretly monitor the activities of institutions: they revealed cases of violation of decrees and abuses and reported to the Senate and the tsar. Since 1715, the work of the Senate was supervised by the general auditor, from 1718 renamed to the chief secretary. Since 1722, control over the Senate has been exercised by the Attorney General and the Chief Attorney, to whom the prosecutors of all other institutions were subordinate. No decision of the Senate was valid without the consent and signature of the Attorney General. The Prosecutor General and his Deputy Chief Prosecutor were directly subordinate to the sovereign.

The Senate as a government could make decisions, but an administrative apparatus was required for their implementation. In 1717-1721, a reform of the executive governing bodies was carried out, as a result of which, parallel to the system of orders with their vague functions, 12collegiates were created according to the Swedish model - the predecessors of future ministries. In contrast to orders, the functions and spheres of activity of each collegium were strictly delineated, and relations in the collegium itself were based on the principle of collegial decisions. Introduced:

· The Collegium of Foreign (Foreign) Affairs - replaced the Ambassadorial Prikaz, that is, it was in charge of foreign policy.

· Military Collegium (Military) - recruiting, arming, equipping and training the ground army.

· Admiralty Collegium - naval affairs, fleet.

· The patrimony collegium - replaced the Local Order, that is, it was in charge of noble land tenure (land litigations, transactions for the purchase and sale of land and peasants, and the search for fugitives were considered). Founded in 1721.

· Chamber collegium - collection of state revenues.

State-office-board - was in charge of state expenditures,

· Revision board - control of collection and spending of state funds.

· Commerce Board - issues of shipping, customs and foreign trade.

· Berg-collegium - mining and metallurgical business (mining industry).

· Manufactures-collegium - light industry (manufactories, that is, enterprises based on the division of manual labor).

· The Justitz Collegium - was in charge of issues of civil proceedings (under her there was a serf office: it registered various acts - deeds of sale, on the sale of estates, spiritual wills, promissory notes). She was engaged in civil and criminal courts.

· The Spiritual College or the Most Holy Governing Synod - managed church affairs, replaced the patriarch. Founded in 1721. This collegium / Synod includes representatives of the highest clergy. Since their appointment was carried out by the tsar, and decisions were approved by him, it can be said that the Russian emperor became the de facto head of the Russian Orthodox Church. The actions of the Synod on behalf of the supreme secular power were controlled by the chief prosecutor - a civil official appointed by the tsar. By a special decree, Peter I (Peter I) ordered the priests to carry out an enlightenment mission among the peasants: to preach sermons, instructions to them, teach children to pray, instill in them respect for the tsar and the church.

· Little Russian collegium - exercised control over the actions of the hetman, who owned power in Ukraine, because there was a special regime of local government. After the death in 1722 of Hetman I.I. The collegium was headed by a tsarist officer.

On February 28, 1720, the General Regulations introduced a single system of office work in the state apparatus for the whole country. According to the regulations, the collegium consisted of the president, 4-5 advisers and 4 assessors.

The central place in the management system was occupied by the secret police: the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (in charge of cases of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery. These institutions were under the jurisdiction of the emperor himself.

In addition, there were the Salt Office, the Copper Department, and the Land Survey Office.

Military, Admiralty and Foreign Affairs were called the "first" colleges.

The collegiums had two institutions: the Synod and the Chief Magistrate.

The collegiums were subordinate to the Senate, and to them - the provincial, provincial and district administrations.

The results of the government reform of Peter the Great are considered ambiguously by historians.

Regional reform

Main article: Regional reform of Peter I

In 1708-1715, a regional reform was carried out with the aim of strengthening the vertical of power on the ground and better supplying the army with supplies and recruits. In 1708, the country was divided into 8 provinces, headed by governors, endowed with full judicial and administrative power: Moscow, Ingermandland (later St. Petersburg), Kiev, Smolensk, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk and Siberia. The Moscow province gave more than a third of the receipts to the treasury, followed by the Kazan province.

The governors were also in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province. In 1710, new administrative units appeared - shares, which united 5536 households. The first regional reform did not solve the assigned tasks, but only significantly increased the number of civil servants and the costs of their maintenance.

In 1719-1720, the second regional reform was carried out, which eliminated the shares. The provinces began to be divided into 50 provinces headed by the governors, and the provinces were supra-districts headed by the zemstvo commissars appointed by the Chamber Collegium. Only military and court cases remained in the jurisdiction of the governor.

Judicial reform

Under Peter, the judicial system underwent radical changes. The functions of the supreme court were given to the Senate and the Justitz Collegium. Below them were: in the provinces - gofgerichts or court appellate courts in large cities, and provincial collegiate lower courts. Provincial courts conducted civil and criminal cases of all categories of peasants, except for monasteries, as well as townspeople who were not included in the settlement. Since 1721, the magistrate was in charge of the court cases of the townspeople included in the posad. In other cases, the so-called single-person court acted (cases were decided by a zemstvo or city judge alone). However, in 1722 the lower courts were replaced by provincial courts headed by a voivode. Peter I was also the first person to carry out judicial reform, regardless of the state of the country.

Control over the activities of civil servants

To control the implementation of decisions on the ground and reduce rampant corruption, since 1711, the office of fiscal officials was established, who were supposed to "secretly visit, inform and expose" all abuses, both high and low officials, prosecute embezzlement, bribery, and accept denunciations from private individuals ... At the head of the fiscal was the ober-fiscal, appointed by the emperor and subordinate to him. Ober-fiscal was a member of the Senate and kept in touch with subordinate fiscal through the fiscal desk of the Senate Chancellery. Denunciations were considered and monthly reported to the Senate by the Chamber of Discipline - a special judicial presence of four judges and two senators (existed in 1712-1719).

In 1719-1723. fiscal subordinate to the Justitz Collegium, with the establishment in January 1722 of the position of the Prosecutor General was supervised by him. Since 1723, the chief fiscal was the general-fiscal, appointed by the sovereign, and his assistant was the chief fiscal, appointed by the Senate. In this regard, the fiscal service left the jurisdiction of the Justic Collegium and regained departmental independence. The vertical of fiscal control was brought to the city level.

Military reform

The reform of the army: in particular, the introduction of regiments of a new system, reformed according to a foreign model, was begun long before Peter I, even under Alexei I. However, the combat effectiveness of this army was low. Reforming the army and creating a fleet became necessary conditions for victory in the Northern War of 1700-1721 years. Preparing for the war with Sweden, Peter ordered in 1699 to make a general recruitment and begin training soldiers according to the model established by the Transfiguration and Semyonovites. This first recruitment gave 29 infantry regiments and two dragoons. In 1705, every 20 households were to put up one recruit for life service. Subsequently, recruits began to be taken from a certain number of male souls among the peasants. Recruitment into the navy, as well as into the army, was carried out from recruits.

Church reform

One of the transformations of Peter I was the reform of church government he carried out, aimed at eliminating church jurisdiction autonomous from the state and subordinating the Russian church hierarchy to the Emperor. In 1700, after the death of Patriarch Adrian, instead of convening a council for the election of a new patriarch, Peter I temporarily appointed Metropolitan of Ryazan Stefan Yavorsky, who received a new title of Guardian of the Patriarchal Throne or "Exarch", at the head of the clergy.

To manage the property of the patriarchal and bishop's houses, as well as monasteries, including the peasants belonging to them (about 795 thousand), the Monastic Order was restored, headed by I.A. income from church and monastery land holdings. In 1701, a series of decrees was issued to reform the administration of church and monastic possessions and the organization of monastic life; the most important were the decrees of January 24 and 31, 1701.

In 1721, Peter approved the Spiritual Regulations, the compilation of which was entrusted to the Pskov bishop, a close Ukrainian of the tsar, Theophan Prokopovich, a Ukrainian. As a result, a radical reform of the church took place, eliminating the autonomy of the clergy and completely subordinating it to the state. In Russia, the patriarchate was abolished and the Spiritual College was established, which was soon renamed the Holy Synod, which was recognized by the Eastern patriarchs as equal to the Patriarch. All members of the Synod were appointed by the Emperor and took an oath of allegiance to him upon assuming office. Wartime stimulated the withdrawal of valuables from monastic depositories. Peter did not go to the full secularization of the church and monastic possessions, which was carried out much later, at the beginning of the reign of Catherine II.

Financial reform

The Azov campaigns, the Northern War of 1700-1721 and the maintenance of a permanent recruiting army created by Peter I required huge funds, to collect which financial reforms were directed.

At the first stage, it all boiled down to finding new sources of funds. To the traditional customs and tavern levies were added fees and benefits from the monopolization of the sale of certain goods (salt, alcohol, tar, bristles, etc.), indirect taxes (bath, fish, horse taxes, tax on oak coffins, etc.) , mandatory use of stamped paper, minting of coins of less weight (damage).

In 1704, Peter carried out a monetary reform, as a result of which the main monetary unit was not money, but a penny. From now on, it began to equal not ½ money, but 2 money, and this word first appeared on coins. At the same time, the irredeemable ruble was abolished, which had been a conventional monetary unit since the 15th century, equated to 68 grams of pure silver and was used as a standard in exchange transactions. The most important measure in the course of the financial reform was the introduction of the poll tax instead of the household taxation that existed before. In 1710, a “household” census was carried out, which showed a decrease in the number of households. One of the reasons for this decrease was that in order to reduce taxes, several households were fenced off with one fence, and one gate was made (this was considered one yard in the census). Due to these shortcomings, it was decided to switch to the poll tax. In 1718-1724, a repeated population census was carried out in parallel with the revision of the population (revision of the census), which began in 1722. According to this revision of taxable persons, there were 5,967,313 people.

Based on the data obtained, the government divided by the population the amount of money needed to maintain the army and navy.

As a result, the size of the per capita tax was determined: serf landowners paid the state 74 kopecks, state peasants - 1 ruble 14 kopecks (since they did not pay quitrent), the urban population - 1 ruble 20 kopecks. Only men, regardless of age, were taxed. The nobility, clergy, as well as soldiers and Cossacks were exempted from the poll tax. The soul was countable - between revisions, the dead were not excluded from the tax lists, newborns were not included, as a result, the tax burden was distributed unevenly.

As a result of the tax reform, the size of the treasury was significantly increased. If in 1710 incomes extended to 3,134,000 rubles; then in 1725 there were 10,186,707 rubles. (according to foreign information - up to 7 859 833 rubles).

Transformations in industry and commerce

Main article: Industry and trade under Peter I

Realizing during the Grand Embassy the technical lag of Russia, Peter could not ignore the problem of reforming Russian industry. In addition, the creation of its own industry was dictated by military needs, as indicated by a number of historians. Having started the Northern War with Sweden for the sake of conquering an outlet to the sea and proclaiming the construction of a modern fleet in the Baltic (and even earlier in Azov) as a task, Peter was forced to build factories designed to meet the sharply increased needs of the army and navy.

One of the main problems was the lack of skilled craftsmen. The tsar solved this problem by attracting foreigners to the Russian service on favorable terms, by sending Russian nobles to study in Western Europe. The manufacturers received great privileges: they were released with children and craftsmen from military service, were subject only to the court of the Manufacturing Collegium, got rid of taxes and internal duties, could bring the tools and materials they needed from abroad duty-free, their houses were exempted from military posts.

Significant measures were taken in the exploration of mineral resources in Russia. Earlier, the Russian state in terms of raw materials was completely dependent on foreign states, first of all, Sweden (iron was transported from there), however, after the discovery of deposits of iron ore and other minerals in the Urals, the need for iron purchases disappeared. In the Urals in 1723 the largest iron-making plant in Russia was founded, from which the city of Yekaterinburg developed. Under Peter, Nevyansk, Kamensk-Uralsky, Nizhny Tagil were founded. Arms factories (cannon yards, arsenals) appear in the Olonets Territory, Sestroretsk and Tula, gunpowder factories - in St. Petersburg and near Moscow, leather and textile industries are developing - in Moscow, Yaroslavl, Kazan and the Left Bank Ukraine, which was due to the need to produce equipment and uniforms for the Russian troops, silk spinning, the production of paper, cement, a sugar factory and a tapestry factory appeared.

In 1719, "Berg Privilege" was published, according to which everyone was given the right to search, melt, cook and refine metals and minerals everywhere, subject to payment of "mining tax" in 1/10 of the cost of mining and 32 shares in favor of the owner of that land where ore deposits were found. For the concealment of ore and an attempt to impede mining, the owner was threatened with confiscation of land, corporal punishment and even the death penalty "through the fault of looking."

The main problem at Russian factories at that time was the lack of labor. The problem was solved by violent measures: whole villages and villages were attributed to manufactories, whose peasants worked out their taxes to the state in manufactories (such peasants will be called attributed), criminals and beggars were sent to factories. In 1721, a decree followed, which allowed "merchant people" to buy villages, the peasants of which could be resettled to manufactories (such peasants would be called possessory).

Trade was further developed. With the construction of St. Petersburg, the role of the country's main port passed from Arkhangelsk to the future capital. River canals were built.

In particular, the Vyshnevolotskiy (Vyshnevolotskiy water system) and the Bypass canals were built. At the same time, two attempts to build the Volga-Don Canal ended in failure (although 24 locks were built), while tens of thousands of people worked on its construction, the working conditions were difficult, and the mortality rate was very high.

Some historians characterize Peter's policy in trade as a policy of protectionism, which consists in supporting domestic production and imposing increased duties on imported products (this was consistent with the idea of ​​mercantilism). So, in 1724, a protective customs tariff was introduced - high duties on foreign goods that could be produced or were already produced by domestic enterprises.

The number of factories and plants at the end of Peter's reign extended to 233, of which about 90 were large manufactories.

Reform of the autocracy

Before Peter, the order of succession to the throne in Russia was not regulated in any way by law, and was entirely determined by tradition. Peter in 1722 issued a decree on the order of succession to the throne, according to which the reigning monarch appoints his successor during his lifetime, and the emperor can make anyone he likes (it was assumed that the tsar will appoint his successor "the most worthy"). This law was in effect until the reign of Paul I. Peter himself did not use the law on succession to the throne, since he died without indicating a successor.

Estates politics

The main goal pursued by Peter I in social policy is the legal registration of the estate rights and obligations of each category of the population of Russia. As a result, a new structure of society was formed, in which the estate character was more clearly formed. The rights and responsibilities of the nobility were expanded, and, at the same time, the serfdom of the peasants was strengthened.

Nobility

1. Education decree 1706: boyar children must receive either primary school or home education.

2. Decree on estates of 1704: noble and boyar estates are not divided and are equal to each other.

3. Decree on single inheritance of 1714: a landowner with sons could bequeath all his immovable property to only one of them of his choice. The rest were required to serve. The decree marked the final merger of the noble estate and the boyar patrimony, thereby finally erasing the differences between them.

4. Division of military, civil and court service into 14 ranks. Upon reaching the eighth grade, any official or military man could receive the status of a personal nobleman. Thus, a person's career depended primarily not on his origin, but on achievements in public service.

The place of the former boyars was taken by the "generals", consisting of the ranks of the first four classes of the "Table of Ranks". Personal length of service mixed the representatives of the former clan nobility with people raised by the service. The legislative measures of Peter, without significantly expanding the estate rights of the nobility, significantly changed his duties. Military affairs, which in Moscow times were the duty of a narrow class of service people, is now becoming the duty of all strata of the population. The nobleman of Peter the Great still has the exclusive right to land tenure, but as a result of decrees on inheritance and revision, he is responsible to the state for the taxable serviceability of his peasants. The nobility is obliged to study in preparation for the service. Peter destroyed the former isolation of the service class, opening by way of service through the Table of Ranks access to the nobility environment for people of other classes. On the other hand, by the law on single inheritance, he opened the exit from the nobility to merchants and clergy to those who wanted it. The nobility of Russia becomes a military-bureaucratic estate, the rights of which are created and hereditarily determined by public service, and not birth.

Peasantry

Peter's reforms changed the position of the peasants. From different categories of peasants who were not in serf dependence on the landlords or the church (black-nosed peasants of the north, non-Russian nationalities, etc.), a new single category of state peasants was formed - personally free, but paid the quitrent to the state. The opinion that this measure "destroyed the remnants of the free peasantry" is incorrect, since the population groups that made up the state peasants were not considered free in the pre-Petrine period - they were attached to the land (Cathedral Code of 1649) and could be granted by the tsar to private individuals and churches as serfs. State peasants in the 18th century had the rights of personally free people (they could own property, act in court as one of the parties, elect representatives to the estate bodies, etc.), but they were limited in movement and could be (until the beginning of the 19th century, when this category is finally approved as free people) transferred by the monarch to the category of serfs. Legislative acts concerning the serf peasantry proper were contradictory. Thus, the interference of landowners in the marriage of serfs was limited (decree of 1724), it was forbidden to put serfs in their place as defendants in court and to keep them on the right for the debts of the owners. Also, the norm on the transfer of the estates of landowners who ruined their peasants to the guardianship was confirmed, and the slaves were given the opportunity to enroll in soldiers, which freed them from serfdom (by decree of Empress Elizabeth on July 2, 1742, serfs were deprived of this opportunity). By the decree of 1699 and the verdict of the Town Hall in 1700, the peasants engaged in trade or crafts were given the right to move to the posad, freeing themselves from serfdom (if the peasant was in such a state). At the same time, measures against fugitive peasants were significantly toughened, large masses of palace peasants were distributed to private individuals, landlords were allowed to recruit serfs. By a decree on April 7, 1690, it was allowed to concede, for unpaid debts of "local" serfs, which in fact was a form of serf trade. The imposition of a capitation tax on serfs (that is, personal servants without land) led to the merger of serfs with serfs. The church peasants were subordinated to the monastic order and removed from the rule of the monasteries. Under Peter, a new category of dependent farmers was created - peasants assigned to manufactories. These peasants in the 18th century were called possessory. By a decree of 1721, noblemen and merchant-manufacturers were allowed to buy peasants for factories to work for them. The peasants bought to the factory were not considered the property of its owners, but were attached to production, so that the owner of the factory could neither sell nor mortgage the peasants separately from the manufacture. Possessional peasants received a fixed salary and performed a fixed amount of work.

Transformations in the field of culture

Peter I changed the beginning of the chronology from the so-called Byzantine era ("from the creation of Adam") to "from the Nativity of Christ." 7208 by the Byzantine era became the year 1700 from the birth of Christ, and the New Year began to be celebrated on January 1. In addition, a uniform application of the Julian calendar was introduced under Peter.

After returning from the Grand Embassy, ​​Peter I fought against the outward manifestations of an "outdated" way of life (the ban on beards is best known), but no less paid attention to the introduction of the nobility to education and secular Europeanized culture. Secular educational institutions began to appear, the first Russian newspaper was founded, and many books were translated into Russian. Success in the service Peter made the nobles dependent on education.

Under Peter in 1703, the first book in Russian with Arabic numerals appeared. Prior to that date, they were designated by letters with titles (wavy lines). In 1708, Peter approved a new alphabet with a simplified outline of letters (the Church Slavonic script remained for printing church literature), the two letters "xi" and "psi" were excluded.

Peter created new printing houses, in which 1312 titles of books were printed in 1700-1725 (twice as many as in the entire previous history of Russian typography). Thanks to the rise of book printing, paper consumption increased from 4,000-8,000 sheets at the end of the 17th century to 50,000 sheets in 1719 ..

There have been changes in the Russian language, which includes 4.5 thousand new words borrowed from European languages.

In 1724, Peter approved the charter of the organized Academy of Sciences (opened in 1725 after his death).

Of particular importance was the construction of stone Petersburg, in which foreign architects took part and which was carried out according to the plan developed by the tsar. He created a new urban environment with previously unknown forms of life and pastime (theater, masquerades). The interior decoration of houses, the way of life, the composition of food, etc. have changed.

By a special decree of the tsar in 1718, assemblies were introduced, representing a new form of communication between people for Russia. At the assemblies, the nobles danced and communicated freely, in contrast to previous feasts and feasts. The reforms carried out by Peter I affected not only politics, economics, but also art. Peter invited foreign artists to Russia and at the same time sent talented young people to study "arts" abroad, mainly to Holland and Italy. In the second quarter of the 18th century. "Peter's pensioners" began to return to Russia, bringing with them new artistic experience and acquired skills.

On December 30, 1701 (January 10, 1702), Peter issued a decree, which instructed to write names in petitions and other documents completely instead of derogatory half names (Ivashka, Senka, etc.), do not fall on your knees in front of the tsar, a hat in winter in the cold in front of the house where the king is, do not shoot. He explained the need for these innovations: "Less baseness, more zeal for service and loyalty to me and the state - this honor is peculiar to the king ..."

Peter tried to change the position of women in Russian society. He, by special decrees (1700, 1702 and 1724), prohibited forced marriage and marriage. It was prescribed that there should be no less than six weeks between the betrothal and the wedding, "so that the bride and groom could recognize each other." If during this time, the decree said, “the bridegroom doesn’t want to take the bride, or the bride doesn’t want to marry the groom,” no matter how the parents insisted, “there must be freedom”. Since 1702, the bride herself (and not only her relatives) was given the formal right to terminate the betrothal and upset the agreed marriage, and neither of the parties had the right to "beat the forehead for a penalty." Legislative prescriptions 1696-1704 on public celebrations, it was obligatory for all Russians, including the "female", to participate in the celebrations and celebrations.

Gradually, among the nobility, a different system of values, perception of the world, aesthetic ideas took shape, which radically differed from the values ​​and worldview of most representatives of other estates.

Education

On January 14, 1700, a school of mathematical and navigational sciences was opened in Moscow. In 1701-1721, artillery, engineering and medical schools were opened in Moscow, an engineering school and a naval academy in St. Petersburg, mining schools at the Olonets and Ural factories. The first gymnasium in Russia was opened in 1705. The goals of mass education were supposed to serve, created by the decree of 1714, digital schools in provincial cities, designed to "teach children of every rank to read and write, digital and geometry." It was supposed to create two such schools in each province, where education was to be free. Garrison schools were opened for soldiers' children, and a network of theological schools was created to train priests1721.

According to the Hanoverian Weber, during the reign of Peter, several thousand Russians were sent to study abroad.

By decrees of Peter, compulsory training of nobles and clergy was introduced, but a similar measure for the urban population met with fierce resistance and was canceled. Peter's attempt to create an all-class elementary school failed (the creation of a network of schools after his death ceased, most of the digital schools under his successors were re-profiled into estate schools for training clergy), but nevertheless, in his reign, the foundations were laid for the spread of education in Russia.

On August 18, 1682, the 10-year-old Peter I ascended the Russian throne. We remember this ruler as a great reformer. Negatively or positively to relate to his innovations - you decide. We recall the 7 most ambitious reforms of Peter I.

Church is not a state

“The church is not another state,” Peter I believed, and therefore his church reform was aimed at weakening the political power of the church. Before her, only the ecclesiastical court could judge the clergy (even in criminal cases), and the timid attempts of the predecessors of Peter I to change this were met with stiff opposition. Along with other estates, the clergy after the reform had to obey the law common to all. Only monks were supposed to live in monasteries, only the sick in almshouses, everyone else was ordered to be evicted from there.
Peter I is known for his tolerance of other denominations. Under him, foreigners were allowed to freely practice their faith and to marry Christians of different denominations. "The Lord gave the kings authority over the nations, but Christ alone has authority over the conscience of people," Peter said. With opponents of the Church, he ordered the bishops to be "meek and reasonable." On the other hand, Peter introduced fines for those who confessed less than once a year or who behaved badly in the church during the service.

Bath and beard tax

Large-scale projects to equip the army and build a fleet required huge investments. In order to provide them, Peter I tightened the country's tax system. Now taxes were collected not from households (after all, the peasants immediately began to enclose several households with one fence), but heart to heart. There were up to 30 different taxes: on fishing, on baths, mills, on the confession of the Old Believers and wearing a beard, and even on oak logs for coffins. The beards were ordered to be "cut to the very neck", and for those who wore them for a fee, a special receipt token, the "bearded sign", was introduced. Salt, alcohol, tar, chalk, fish oil could now be traded only by the state. The main monetary unit under Peter was not money, but a penny, the weight and composition of the coins was changed, and the irredeemable ruble ceased to exist. Treasury revenues increased several times, however, due to the impoverishment of the people and not for long.

To the army for life

To win the Northern War of 1700-1721, it was necessary to modernize the army. In 1705, each courtyard had to give one recruit to the lifelong service. This applied to all estates, except for the nobility. The army and the navy were composed of these recruits. In the military regulations of Peter I, for the first time, the first place was placed not on the moral and religious content of criminal acts, but on contradiction to the will of the state. Peter managed to create the most powerful regular army and navy, which have not yet been in Russia. By the end of his reign, the number of regular ground forces was 210 thousand, irregular - 110 thousand, and more than 30 thousand people served in the navy.

"Extra" 5508 years

Peter I "abolished" 5508 years, changing the tradition of chronology: instead of counting the years "from the creation of Adam" in Russia, they began to count the years "from the birth of Christ." The use of the Julian calendar and the celebration of the New Year on January 1 are also innovations of Peter. He also introduced the use of modern Arabic numerals, replacing the old numbers with them - the letters of the Slavic alphabet with titles. The outline of the letters has been simplified, the letters "xi" and "psi" have "dropped out" from the alphabet. For secular books, their own script was now relied on - a civil one, and semi-ustav was left for liturgical and spiritual.
In 1703, the first Russian printed newspaper Vedomosti began to appear, and in 1719 the first museum in Russian history, the Kunstkamera with a public library, began to operate.
Under Peter, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences (1701), the Medical and Surgical School (1707) - the future Military Medical Academy, the Naval Academy (1715), the School of Engineering and Artillery (1719), schools of translators were opened at the collegiums.

Learning through strength

All nobles and clergy were to receive education from now on. The success of a noble career now depended directly on this. Under Peter, new schools were created: garrison schools for children of soldiers, spiritual schools for children of priests. Moreover, each province was supposed to have digital schools with free education for all classes. Such schools were necessarily supplied with primers in the Slavic and Latin languages, as well as alphabets, psalteries, books of hours and arithmetic. The training of the clergy was compulsory, those who opposed it were threatened with military service and taxes, and those who did not graduate were not allowed to marry. But because of the coercive nature and harsh teaching methods (beating and chaining), such schools did not last long.

A slave is better than a slave

"Less baseness, more zeal for service and loyalty to me and the state - this honor is characteristic of the tsar ..." - these are the words of Peter I. As a result of this tsarist position, some changes occurred in the relationship between the tsar and the people, which were a novelty in Russia. For example, in petition messages it was no longer allowed to humiliate oneself with the signatures "Grishka" or "Mitka", but it was necessary to put your full name. It was not necessary to take off his hat in the strong Russian frost, passing by the royal residence. It was not supposed to fall on your knees before the king, and the address “servant” was replaced by “slave”, which was not derogatory in those days and was associated with “servant of God”.
Freedom has also increased for young people wishing to get married. The forced marriage of a girl was abolished by three decrees, and the betrothal and the wedding had to be separated in time so that the bride and groom "could recognize each other." Complaints that one of them had annulled the engagement were not accepted - it was now their right.