Reform of creation of orders. Order reform in Rus'

In the middle of the 16th century. in Russia the transition from palace-patrimonial to order management system- an extensive network of orders has developed. Outgrowing

the palace-patrimonial system into the clerk's office was an indicator of the centralization of the Russian state, since the palace authorities, which previously were in charge only of the princely domain, now became institutions governing the entire vast Russian state.

Orders- these are institutions that were in charge of branches of public administration or individual regions of the country. First orders

appeared even before the reform of Ivan IV, when the functions of managing certain issues began to be entrusted (ordered) to the boyars. By the middle of the 16th century. There were about 20 orders in the country. The leading role during the formation of the order system belonged to military administrative orders. Among the reforms carried out by Ivan IV was a military reform that reorganized the army. The basis of the Russian army was the noble cavalry and archers.

The need for a rifle army arose in connection with the development and improvement of firearms. The creation of a permanent Streltsy army was a big step forward in the organization of Russian military forces. Initially there were three thousand archers.

To control the archers, a special one was created Streletsky order. Military reform included strengthening artillery

(created for its management Pushkar order), the hiring of foreigners into the Russian army led to the creation Foreign order. The Cossacks began to be recruited to carry out border service - arose Cossack order, in charge of the Cossack troops. The personnel of the boyar and noble cavalry was in charge of the cavalry created at the beginning of the 16th century.

Discharge order, recording all appointments to the service, movements in positions based on the principle of localism, i.e. birth and nobility. Local order was in charge of the local land holdings of the serving nobles. Its functions included control over the provision of noble lands with estates for military service in accordance with established standards.

At the same time, special territorial orders appeared, which were in charge of the management of territories annexed to Russia or developed (Kazan order).

During the period of the estate-representative monarchy, the embryo of a central police body arose in Russia. At first it was the Boyar Duma for robbery, and then Robbery order whose competence included the development of orders for local authorities to combat ordinary crimes and the appointment of relevant officials. This order was already in the middle of the 16th century. headed the police detective system. This order approved the positions of provincial elders, kissers and clerks, and the sentences of provincial huts; in the second instance, robbery and litigation cases were considered. In Moscow, police functions were performed by Zemsky order.

Palace orders served the personal needs of the king and his family. There were several of them: order Konyushenny was in charge of the royal stables, were Trapper, Falconer, Bedkeeper and other orders.

The positions of the leaders of these orders were considered especially honorable, and according to the principle of localism, they could be occupied by the most noble feudal lords. Under Ivan IV, the

Petition order. Created to handle cases of slaves Serf order, whereas previously they were dealt with by local governments and A caustic order. In the Serf Order, servitude records were registered in special books, and claims were considered in cases of runaway slaves.

Played a particularly important role Ambassadorial order, in charge of diverse foreign policy issues, which had previously been dealt with by many bodies, including the Boyar Duma. The absence of a single center for embassy affairs created significant inconveniences: first of all, with a large number of persons participating in the regulation of interstate relations, it was difficult to maintain state secrets.

The Ambassadorial Prikaz negotiated with representatives of foreign states, developed the most important documents on foreign policy issues justifying the position of the Russian state, resolved border conflicts, engaged in the exchange of prisoners, etc. The role of the Boyar Duma as a result of the creation of the Ambassadorial Prikaz in resolving foreign policy issues decreased. At the head of the order was a boyar or clerk- a major government official. The orders were in charge of administration, tax collection and the courts. As the tasks of public administration became more complex, the number of orders grew. The design of the order system made it possible to centralize the management of the country, but at the same time created a significant bureaucratic apparatus and the style of its work.

Abstract on the history of Russia

Governing body Ivan the Terrible was of great importance for Russian history, for the further strengthening of the Russian state and autocratic power. The policy of Ivan IV went through two stages: the reforms of the 50s strengthened autocratic power, limited by class-representative institutions in the center and locally; then the oprichnina became an attempt to establish an absolute monarchy.

Ivan IV's childhood passed during the period of "boyar rule" - conspiracies at the top, city uprisings, which undermined state power. Hopes for resolving the contradictions were pinned on the beginning of the independent reign of Ivan IV, who assumed the title of Tsar in 1547. Under the tsar, the “Chosen Rada” was formed (Prince Kurbsky, Alexei Adashev, Metropolitan Macarius, Ivan IV’s confessor Sylvester), with the help of which Ivan IV tried to implement the ideas of European absolutism in Russia and present his power as an expression of public interests.

In 1549, Ivan IV collected the first in the history of our country Zemsky Sobor, a meeting of representatives from all classes, except landowners and serfs, at which he presented a program of reforms. The government is beginning to develop a new Code of Laws, since the previous one from 1497 is already outdated. The new Code of Law was adopted in 1550 by the Boyar Duma. The code of law strengthened the centralization of state administration by increasing the role of central bodies - orders and sharply limiting the power of governors, and determined the procedure for the passage of administrative, judicial and property cases in the structures of state power. The right was given to those elected by the people: elders, sotskys to participate in the court carried out by the boyar-governors and volostels, which dealt a strong blow to the judicial omnipotence of the boyars. The tax privileges of large secular and spiritual feudal lords were also limited. The Code of Law regulated the position of peasants. By increasing the fee for leaving the master on St. George's Day ("elderly"), the Code of Laws significantly strengthened serfdom. In July 1550, localism (occupation of military positions depending on the nobility of the family) between the children of boyars and nobles was abolished.

Adoption Sudebnik marked the beginning of a series of reforms. In 1556, the feeding system was eliminated, the boyars began to receive monetary salaries from the state for their service, that is, it became the main source of livelihood. In the same year, the “Code of Service” was announced, which equalized the responsibilities of military service for boyars and nobles. Each landowner was ordered to field one mounted warrior for every one hundred quarters of his land and a foot warrior for every less than one hundred quarters of the land. According to the Code, votchinas were militarily equivalent to estates.

Completes formation of the Russian army. In the early 50s of the 16th century. A streltsy army was created, initially numbering three thousand people, and by the end of the 16th century. - 20 thousand archers. Artillery was allocated as a separate branch of the military and quickly began to grow in numbers. By the end of the reign of Ivan the Terrible, Russian artillery was armed with 2 thousand guns. The principle of recruiting archer regiments was the voluntary desire of any free person. The role of artillery increased.

Order reform was carried out in the second half of the 50s. XVI century. During it, the creation of a coherent system of executive power and public administration, consisting of 22 orders, was completed. The order reform resulted in an increase in the size of the bureaucracy, covering with its total influence all spheres of social life.

In the middle of the 16th century. The highest state body arises - the Zemstvo Sobor, convened to resolve the most important issues. The participation of boyars, nobles, clergy and merchants in them testified to the transformation of the state into an estate-representative monarchy. This was also reflected in the development of local zemstvo self-government. In 1555-1556. the feeding system is being eliminated. Instead of governors, zemstvo elders appeared, chosen from wealthy townspeople and peasants.

In the same years it was carried out church reform. All-Russian canonization of saints was carried out at church councils, which should symbolize the unification of the Russian people into a single state. In 1551, the Tsar came to the “Stoglavy Council” with a demand for the secularization of church lands (their alienation in favor of the state). It was not possible to carry it out, but the Tsar forced the Council to make the following decisions:

The lands seized by the church from nobles and peasants during the tsar’s childhood, as well as estates given by the boyars to monasteries for the commemoration of their souls, were assigned to the tsar;

The Church was forbidden to increase its land holdings without the permission of the king;

Uniformity in religious rituals, responsibility for their violation, and the election of archimandrites and abbots were established.

The reform weakened the church's independence from the state and strengthened its corporate organization.

Failures in foreign policy in the early 60s. XVI century created for Ivan IV the illusion of total boyar betrayal and sabotage of his events. This prompts Grozny to introduce a new order of government in the country, which was aimed at the complete destruction of any opposition to the autocracy.

Ivan the Terrible introduced oprichnina, having carried out a kind of coup d'etat on December 3, 1564. According to the new order, the central administration was divided into oprichnina and zemstvo courtyards. The country's lands were also divided into oprichnina and zemshchina. The zemshchina remained under the same administration, and the oprichnina was completely under the control of the tsar. Boyars and nobles who were not registered in the oprichnina moved to the zemshchina, receiving new estates there. “Oprichna service people” were placed on the lands taken from them. Disgraced boyars were deprived of their ancestral estates. Such measures dealt a strong blow to the economic and political power of the “great” boyar families. The main measure was the creation of an oprichnina army (1 thousand people) - the tsar’s personal guard. The guardsmen, who became middle-class nobles, were given extraordinary punitive functions: to “gnaw” traitors and “sweep out” treason from the state (the sign of the guardsman is the head of a dog and a broom at the saddle of a horse) - that is, to carry out surveillance and reprisals throughout the country. Secret investigations, torture, mass executions, destruction of estates, plunder of the property of disgraced boyars, punitive expeditions against cities and counties became commonplace.

The peak of the oprichnina was the campaign against Novgorod, which for some reason was suspected of rebellion. Along the way, Tver, Torzhok, and other cities and villages were devastated. Novgorod itself was subjected to an unprecedented 40-day plunder by the oprichnina army. Up to 10 thousand people were tortured and executed.

The order form of government is a unique phenomenon in the history of Russian statehood. This system developed over two centuries and was important in strengthening Russian statehood. What caused the need to reform the order system, why it lost its significance - read below.

The emergence of orders

The formation of the command system of management dates back to the end of the 15th century. The lack of coordination between the actions of local authorities could not ensure constant state control over vast and remote regions. Those institutions that had already been formed at that time did not have clear During the period of scattered and infrequent relations between the various territories of the appanage principalities, “orders”, otherwise called “courts” or “izba”, arose for a short time. Their functions were tailored to carry out one or another order of the supreme power. Usually, the princes entrusted this or that order - an “order” - to their boyars for implementation and control. The expression “to be on the order” in those days meant to be in direct charge of the prince’s instructions and to monitor its implementation.

Responsibilities of orders

The fact that the functions of early orders were very blurred is evidenced by the following facts:

Spontaneous occurrence of various orders with a short period of action;

Incoming documents were addressed to certain individuals, and not, in fact, to the institution;

The method of carrying out orders was based on the so-called “legal custom”, thus, there was no general legislative foundation necessary for the clear and unambiguous implementation of orders, which means that the efficiency of governing the country decreased.

These are the main reasons for the need to reform the order system.

First orders

The first institutions with more or less clearly defined state responsibilities arose in the mid-16th century. management in Russia at the end of the XV-XVII centuries. can be classified according to functional, territorial or class characteristics.

Classification of orders

The first category includes orders that were in charge of palace and financial affairs. This is, first of all, the Palace Order, which was responsible for running the prince’s household; he managed those lands and people who were responsible for the life support of the prince’s palace. The Great Treasury Order was in charge of collecting and minting coins, the Hunting Order was in charge of the prince’s reserves and hunting grounds, and so on.

The third category of orders specialized primarily in judicial functions. The local order dealt with property litigation, Kholopy, Razboiny (later Sysknoy) was in charge of prisons and criminal police affairs, and the Zemsky order exercised police and judicial supervision over the population of Moscow.

The fourth group is local authorities. The number of regional and territorial orders grew along with the number of those attached to the So, quaternary orders appeared - Ryazan, Vladimir, Dmitrov, and later - Siberian, Little Russian and others.

The fifth category united special management bodies. For example, there was the Stone Order, which was in charge of the construction of stone buildings and structures, and the Yamsky Order, which was responsible for postal items. Over time, the Book Printing, Apothecary, Ambassadorial and other orders arose.

The sixth group of orders was in charge of church affairs. These include the Monastic Order, the Patriarchal Court and others.

Relations between various orders were formed spontaneously; a clear distribution of responsibilities was not developed. Some orders could not give instructions to others. To regulate these relations, associations of orders were formed, which could be divided into a main order and several awards. So, by the 70s of the 17th century he began to exercise leadership over Little Russian and Novgorod. The termination of the powers of a particular order was not final - over time, it could well be revived as an independent institution with a certain set of functions.

Financing orders

The fiat management system was financed largely haphazardly. For current affairs, funding was taken from a certain territory from which taxes were levied; for individual cases, funds could be transferred from other orders, or special taxes could be created. The regulation of cash flows was carried out by such orders as the Order of the Great Treasury, the Order for the collection of request money, etc. Another answer to the question of what caused the need to reform the order system will be the extreme confusion of cash flows and the inconsistency of the actions of various orders.

Peter's reforms

Over time, the command system of management in Russia began to function “for itself,” requiring more and more resources, and with less and less return. The reforms of Peter I replaced outdated orders with collegiums, which were distinguished by certain functions and clear distinctions between legislative, executive and judicial powers. Everything that caused the need to reform the order system should have become a thing of the past along with the introduction of new management forms that came to Russia with the coming to power of the reformer tsar.

Orders- bodies of the centralized government system, which initially developed from individual and temporary government orders issued by the Moscow Grand Duke for boyars and free servants. In general, an order is a private order, not an authority. But in the XVI-XVII centuries. these “sole orders” turned into complex and permanent public places, called “izbs” or “orders”.

The issuance of orders occurred as a result of a gradual transition from the palace-patrimonial control system.

Order comes from the word “to order.” The orders were headed by boyars, to whom clerks, clerks and chief officers, and clerks were subordinate.

Orderly people, in addition to administration, ran the court. Main judge - head of the order(boyar).

Order control system:

Ivan IV introduced a special system of terror - oprichnina.

A new supreme authority appeared (1549) - Zemsky Sobor.

These were representative bodies, which included:

1) upper house: tsar, Boyar Duma, clergy;

2) lower house: representatives from the nobility and the upper classes of the townspeople.

Zemstvo councils did not work constantly; they were convened by decree of the tsar. The duration of their work depended on the substance of the issues discussed.

The initiative to convene the Zemsky Sobor could belong to both the tsar himself and the estates. The competence of zemstvo issues was not clearly established. The councils at which the tsar (16-year-old Mikhail Romanov) was elected are significant.

The entire state apparatus underwent significant reform. A voivode-order management system was formed.

The orders were formed from the previously existing palace departments (stable). The competence of these orders was similar to the directorates.

Local order dealt with the estates of serving nobles, it was with the introduction of this body that the formation of a new system of land ownership (estates) was associated; their legal status was increasingly equalized with estates.

A special group consisted territorial orders(Kazan, Siberian), the introduction of which is associated with another merit of Ivan IV - the annexation of Kazan and Siberia. A special place in the system of orders was occupied by military administrative orders.

An important place among the reforms of Ivan IV occupies army reorganization. Now the main troops were the noble cavalry and streltsy (troops using firearms). To control the archers, a special one was created Streletsky order. Military formations (personnel of the boyar and noble cavalry) were also in charge Bit order. Cossack troops were controlled By Cossack order.

During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the system of filling government positions on the principle of localism, i.e., by birth, nobility, was still preserved.

Reforms state authorities of Ivan the Terrible affected and court and investigation system. A central police authority was formed - Robbery order. His competence included the development of recommendations for local authorities on issues of combating crime.

Ivan IV also changed the system of local government (Malo-Pinega zemstvo charter). Zemstvo and provincial huts were introduced, dealing with: the former - issues of district administration, the latter - issues of trial and investigation, with the exception of especially serious crimes (robbery).

Zemstvo and provincial institutions were elected. Their members were elected from among the population living in the district (based on class), and not, as was previously the case, appointed from the center. A system of local self-government began to emerge.

Central power was maintained locally. In the cities there were governors who were supposed to ensure local financial control of the state.

The system of central government bodies that began to take shape under Ivan III received a relatively complete form during the reforms of Ivan IV in the mid-16th century. The core of the administrative apparatus became the order system. At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. orders were the orders given by the sovereign to his associates - instructions to “manage” this or that matter. But the orders of the mid-16th - 17th centuries. - These are permanent departments responsible for certain areas of government activity. The first orders of this kind arose in the system of palace management: the State and Stable orders, the order of the Grand Palace, etc. The Ambassadorial order was in charge of foreign policy, the Local order was in charge of the distribution of lands among service people, the collection of the noble militia and the appointment of governors - Rank, the capture of criminals - Robbery, etc. In addition to sectoral orders, the jurisdiction of which extended to the entire country, there were also regional orders that governed certain territories: the Novgorod Chet, the Vladimir Court Order, the Kazan, Astrakhan, Zemsky (Moscow Administration) orders.

The order administration included order judges, order clerks and clerks.

Stoglavy Cathedral

In 1551, in Moscow, on the initiative of Ivan IV and Metropolitan Macarius, a church council was held (with the participation of secular representatives of the ruling class), which later released a collection of its decrees - the “Cathedral Code”, consisting of one hundred chapters. Therefore, the cathedral itself began to be called Stoglavy.

This church council made the following main decisions:

1) on the unification of church rites and duties throughout Russia;

2) on the creation of an all-Russian list of saints;

3) on the adoption of a unified monastic charter;

4) on determining the norms of behavior of the clergy and tightening punishment for their violation;

5) on the regulation (creation of canons) of icon painting and book writing;

6) on the establishment of schools for priests;

7) about methods of combating heresies;

8) on approval of the structure of the Russian Orthodox Church.

Under the influence of his confessor Sylvester, Ivan IV proposed limiting monastic land ownership. However, this idea did not find support among the majority of the council participants. The lands received by the church before the Council of the Hundred Heads remained in its ownership, but from now on all territorial acquisitions (purchase and receipt as a gift) could only be carried out with the knowledge and permission of the tsar.

In addition, the clergy was now under the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical court.

The Stoglav Cathedral played a big role in strengthening the spiritual authority of the Russian Orthodox Church, and Stoglav became one of the most important church-legal documents.

Military reform and local government reform

In 1550, a permanent streltsy army was created for the first time in Russia, which by the end of the 16th century numbered 25 thousand people. It was recruited from the squeaker squads. The archers received a cash salary for their service, the state also gave them weapons (including firearms) and uniforms. In addition, the archers had their own business - a craft workshop or small trade, which brought them their main income. The Streltsy were divided into orders (regiments), headed by colonels or Streltsy heads. It is important to note that the archers not only participated in wars, but also carried out guard and patrol duty in cities. The general management of the Streletsky army was carried out by a special central department - the Streletsky Prikaz.

In 1556, the “Code of Service” was adopted, which established a unified procedure for organizing military forces. Now, from a certain amount of land (100 quarters), an armed warrior on horseback had to be deployed. The military reform equalized the boyar estate and estate “in service”, increased the number of armed forces, and increased their combat effectiveness. Service people were divided into two groups: those serving “by fatherland” (i.e. by inheritance - boyars and nobles) and “by device” (i.e. by recruitment - archers, gunners, city Cossacks).

As a result of the local government reform (1555-1556), the feeding system was abolished. The nobles and “children of the boyars” elected provincial elders who headed the provincial izba (territorial district). Lip huts, subordinate to the Robbery Order, were engaged in searching for and punishing “dashing people”, allocating land, surveying and collecting taxes. The main functions of local government were the distribution, collection and delivery of direct taxes to Moscow. Instead of feeding (when a separate volost or city was given “as food” to a representative of the “center”), a tax was introduced in favor of the state, which contributed to the centralization of finances. The main tax unit was the “big plow”, the size of which depended on the quantity and quality of the cultivated land.