The political transformation of Peter 1 is brief. Reforms of Peter the Great and their role in the development of the state

Bibliographic description:

A.K. Nesterov Reforms of Peter I [Electronic resource] // Educational encyclopedia site

The reforms of Peter the Great are a topic of utmost importance today. Peter is a symbol of an urgent social need for change, moreover, for cardinal, quick and at the same time successful changes. Such a need, even a necessity, still exists. And the experience of transformations of those years can be invaluable for today's reformers in Russia. They can avoid the excesses that Peter made in trying to lift the country from its knees.

The significance of the reforms of Peter the Great

The personality of the first emperor of Russia, his transformations and their results are an exceptional example for all generations.

There are turning points in the history of each state, after which the country rises to a qualitatively new stage of development. There were three such periods in Russia: the reforms of Peter the Great, the Great October Socialist Revolution and the collapse of the Soviet Union. Peter's transformations, carried out three centuries ago, had a huge impact on the imperial era, which lasted for almost two centuries; unlike most of the kings, Peter was not forgotten in Soviet times.

In the last twenty-five years, the reforms of the first quarter of the eighteenth century are also relevant, because today, as well as at that time, reforms are needed that can put our country on a par with Western states.

As a result of Peter's reforms, a new strong state was created, capable of competing with the advanced powers of Europe. If it were not for Peter, then having no outlet to strategically important seas, unable to trade under the new conditions, uneducated Muscovy would become a province of Sweden or Turkey. To win, we had to learn from the Europeans. All civilizations adopted the experience of others, only two developed practically in an original way: India and China. Muscovy, which absorbed many positive and negative features of Asian culture during the Mongol yoke, combined them together with the remnants of Byzantine culture, with a certain share of European culture penetrating the country through a few trade relations. This indicates the absence of any kind of identity before Peter. Peter, having divided everything negative, obsolete, and progressive, completely destroyed the former and multiplied the latter many times over.

Peter the Great forced the country in a quarter of a century to take such a huge step forward, which other countries have taken for several centuries.

But we must not forget about the price at which this was done, what the Russian people sacrificed, trying to enter the European arena. The issue of violence in reform is highly controversial. Peter forced everyone to obey his will, forced him with rods and sticks, and everyone obeyed his will. But on the other hand, there were government orders that were regularly paid. Without one or the other, such a tremendous success would have been unattainable. When asked about the possibility of avoiding violence in reform activities, one can answer that without him the Russian peasant and the Russian boyar were not raised from the bench. The rigidness of Muscovy was the main obstacle to any reforms. It was possible to overcome it only by force, and by force of tough and cruel one.

Chronological table of the main reforms of Peter I

Table. Reforms of Peter the Great.

	Reforms of Peter I	Description of reforms
	Fleet building Formation of a regular army Urban reform The first reform of Russian life	The fleet was built in Voronezh and the surrounding area for the campaign against Azov. Organized kumpanstvo from peasants, landowners, clergy, townspeople and black-haired population, merchants living room and cloth hundreds. 16 ships and 60 brigantines were built. The call to service of all interested persons from among the free people, the salary is 2 times higher than that of the archers. A recruiting system has been introduced. The city reform transferred the townspeople to the jurisdiction of the Burmister Chamber, the role of the Boyar Duma was reduced, and Peter sent Russians to study in European countries to train specialists. The first reform of Russian life concerned a ban on wearing a beard, those who wanted to leave a beard paid a tax to the treasury (except for the clergy), peasants with a beard paid a tax upon entering the city.
	The beginning of the military reform	The elimination of the streltsy army in 1698, the formation of regiments with foreign officers who turned out to be bankrupt. Formation of a new army based on recruitment after the defeat at Narva.
	Military reform	The duty for the nobles to carry out military service from the rank of soldier. Creation of 50 military schools. Shipbuilding moved to St. Petersburg.
	Start of construction of manufactories	Construction of iron-making factories in the Urals and in the Olonets Territory.
	Mint reform	The monetary system was based on the decimal principle: ruble - dime - penny. It was an advanced division unparalleled in many Western countries. State monopoly on the minting of coins and a ban on the export of gold and silver from the country. The ruble is equal in weight to the thaler.
	Foreign trade reform	Protectionist policy. High duties on the export of raw materials. Foreign trade is concentrated in the hands of the state.
	Administrative reform	Establishment of 8 provinces, the creation of the Senate, the introduction of the position of the Prosecutor General of the Senate to control the activities of the Senate, the abolition of orders and the creation of collegia. In 1714, a decree on single inheritance was issued to strengthen the absolute monarchy. In 1721 the Holy Synod was formed, the church became a state institution.
	Education reform	Many schools were opened, textbooks appeared, applied disciplines were put forward in the first place, civil script and Arabic numerals were introduced, the first library was created, which became the basis for the library of the Academy of Sciences, the first newspaper appeared, the Kunstkamera was opened - the first museum in Russia.
	Changes in Russian life	The ban on long-sex Russian clothes, prescribed to drink tea and coffee, introduced assemblies, put an end to the seclusion of Russian women. The life of the nobles and merchants changed so much that they began to seem like foreigners to the peasants. The changes practically did not affect the life of the peasants.
	Change of chronology	The transition to the Julian calendar has been completed.
	The emergence of a generally accessible Russian theater	"Comedy Horomina" on Red Square in Moscow. Later, the theater of the Slavic-Greco-Roman Academy appeared.
	Cultural changes	Portraits appeared. The genre of "history" appeared in literature. The secular principle prevailed over the church one.

Preconditions for the reforms of Peter I

French historians consider the Great French Revolution to be the most important milestone in the history of France. Peter's reforms can be cited as an analogue in the history of Russia. But one cannot think that the transformations began under Peter the Great, that all the merit in their implementation belongs only to him. The transformations began before him, he only found the means, opportunities and very timely completed everything that he inherited. By the time of Peter's accession to the throne, all the necessary prerequisites existed for carrying out reforms.

Russia at that time was the largest state in the Old World. Its territory stretched from the Arctic Ocean to the Caspian Sea, from the Dnieper to the shores of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, but the population was only 14 million people, concentrated mainly in the center and in the north of the European part of Russia. The peculiarity of the country's geographical position determined the duality in the economic and political development of Russia: it was striving for Europe, but it had significant interests in the east as well. To become the main intermediary in trade between Europe and Asia, Russia had to be able to do business in a European way. But until the end of the seventeenth century, the state had neither a merchant nor a military fleet, since there was no outlet to strategically important seas, and Russian merchants could not compete with foreigners. The Swedes, whose merchant fleet by the end of the seventeenth century numbered 800 ships, dominated the shores of the Baltic, while Turkey and the Crimean Khanate owned the entire coast of the Black Sea.

Foreign trade was conducted only through two ports: Astrakhan and Arkhangelsk. But through Astrakhan, trade went only with the East, and the path to the White Sea was very long, difficult, dangerous and open only in the summer. Merchants from other countries were reluctant to use it, and upon arrival in Arkhangelsk they lowered the price of goods, and the Russians refused to sell at a price other than that which they had set themselves. As a result, the goods were spoiled right in the warehouses. Therefore, the priority task for the country was to conquer the outlet to the Baltic and the Black Sea. Karl Marx, not inclined to approve of the crowned heads of absolute monarchies, investigated Russia's foreign policy and proved that Peter's territorial acquisitions were historically justified by the objective needs of Russia's development. Although Peter was not the initiator of these directions of foreign policy: attempts to conquer the outlets to the seas were made before Peter: the Livonian War of Ivan the Terrible and the campaigns to the Crimea of ​​Prince V.V. Golitsyn under Princess Sophia.

The level of development of Western countries was so superior to that of Russia that it threatened the enslavement of the country, turning into one of the colonies. To avoid this threat and eliminate backwardness in Russia, it was necessary to carry out a number of economic, military, administrative and political reforms. All the economic prerequisites for their implementation have already developed in the seventeenth century: the growth of production, the expansion of the range of agricultural products, the development of handicraft production, the emergence of manufactories, the development of trade. The political prerequisites for the reforms were a significant strengthening of the autocracy, which contributed to the rapid implementation of reforms, the growth of the economic role of merchants, and the desire for reforms on the part of the local nobility. By the end of the seventeenth century, the tendency of the formation of absolutism was more and more clearly observed in the country. The Zemsky Sobors ceased their activities, the Boyar Duma lost its role, along with it the personal office of the tsar appeared, which received the name of the Order of Secret Affairs.

To wage war with Sweden, which had the most powerful army in Europe, a well-organized and experienced army was needed. The main striking force of the Russian army was the noble cavalry, the streltsy troops were not a regular army, only during the war an army was assembled, more reminiscent of the people's militia, small mercenary regiments of the "new system" did not become widespread. To reform the army, a good economic and administrative support was needed. Neither one nor the other in Russia, again, was not. Therefore, the transformations had to be carried out in all three areas at the same time.

The impetus for the start of reforms was the participation of Peter the Great in the Great Embassy, ​​during which the young tsar got acquainted with the economic, cultural and technical achievements of Europe. The pretext for the beginning of the main transformations was the defeat at Narva at the very beginning of the Northern War, in November 1700. After him, military reform began, followed by an economic reform.

The first transformations of Peter the Great

The first transformations began after the first Azov campaign in 1695, during which it was not possible to take the fortress at the mouth of the Don due to the absence of a fleet from the Russian troops. The Turks had free access to the fortress from the sea and supplied the besieged with supplies and weapons, and it was impossible to prevent them from doing this without the presence of a fleet. Peter, who personally took part in the siege, did not give up after the defeat. He entrusts the command of all ground forces to Generalissimo A.S. Shein, and the fleet, which still needed to be built, to Admiral Lefort. The decree on the construction of the fleet was issued in January 1696. The future fleet was to be built in Voronezh and surrounding areas. This choice was not made by chance: flat-bottomed river vessels - plows were built here for a long time, and during the Chigirin and Crimean campaigns, sea vessels were also built here; good ship pines grew around Voronezh. At the end of May 1696, the Russian army again approached Azov. Thanks to the built fleet, she was successful: the Turkish garrison capitulated.

The fleet was to be built by the so-called kumpanstvo, the organization principle of which was quite simple: from ten thousand peasants it was necessary to launch one ship. The large landowners built ships alone, while the rest gathered in the company in such a way that all its members had a total of ten thousand peasants. The church owners had to launch a ship from eight thousand peasants, the rest of the principle remained the same. In total, 42 secular and 19 spiritual kumpants were formed. The Posad and Black-Sow population, as well as hundreds of living room and cloth merchants, were united into one Kumpanstvo, obliged to build 14 ships and headed by a commission of five guests. Another builder of the Voronezh fleet was the treasury. The Admiralty built ships with money collected from secular and spiritual soul owners, who had less than a hundred peasants. As a result, he built 16 ships and 60 brigantines.

The decrees of November 8 and 17, 1699 laid the foundation for the formation of a new regular army. The first called for the service of all interested persons from among the free people, and the salary was 2 times higher than that of the archers and amounted to 11 rubles a year. The Danish ambassador Paul Gaines wrote to Copenhagen: "Now he (Peter) has completely gone into the business of organizing his army; he wants to bring his infantry to 50,000, cavalry to 25,000." The second decree marked the beginning of the recruiting system. From a certain number of peasant and posad households, one recruit was called up, depending on the needs of the army, the number of households was constantly changing.

The urban reform of 1699 had financial, economic and administrative significance at the same time: the townspeople were removed from the control of the governor and transferred to the jurisdiction of the Burmister Chamber, which exercised judicial functions over the population and became a responsible collector of direct and indirect taxes. An important change took place in the Boyar Duma: its role practically disappeared, and an unborn element began to penetrate into it. F.Yu. Romodanovsky, who had only the rank of steward. Having no schools for training specialists, Peter sent Russian people to study abroad to acquire practical skills in shipbuilding and ship management.

The changes also affected the appearance: after returning from abroad, Peter personally cut off some boyars' beards. Those who wished to keep a beard had to pay a tax on wearing it. Moreover, the size of the tax was determined by the social status of its owner: merchants paid most of all, followed by service people and prominent representatives of the townspeople, the nobility behind them were paid least of all by ordinary townspeople and boyar slaves. Only the clergy and peasants were allowed to leave beards, but the latter, upon entering the city, had to pay one kopeck. As a result, convinced bearded men suffered, and the royal treasury won.

The transformations were just beginning, they did not yet touch the essential foundations of the Russian state, but were already quite tangible for the people and noticeable from the outside. The Danish ambassador Paul Gaines wrote to Copenhagen: "The Tsar has recently performed a number of miracles ... Compare his Russia with the old - the difference is the same as between day and night."

Military reform of Peter I

One of the most significant and important transformations of Peter the Great can be considered the military reform, which made it possible to create an army that would meet all the military standards of that time. First, the Russian troops defeated the enemy with a superior number, then equal, and at the end with a smaller number. And the enemy was one of the best armies in Europe at that time. As a result of the reform, the noble cavalry with marching courtyard people and the regiments of a foreign system, led by Peter's predecessors, were transformed by him into a regular army, which, as a result of a long war, became permanent by itself. The rifle army was destroyed after the revolt of 1698. But it was destroyed not only for political reasons, the archers by the end of the century no longer represented a real military force capable of withstanding the well-armed regular troops of the enemy. They were reluctant to go to war, since many had their own shops, the archers were much nicer in civilian occupations, and besides, the salary for the service was not paid regularly.

In 1698 - 1700 several regiments were hastily formed, headed by foreigners who sometimes do not even know the Russian language. These regiments showed their complete failure at the siege of Narva in 1700. Partly due to lack of experience, partly due to the betrayal of foreign officers, among whom were Swedes. After the defeat, a new army was assembled and trained, which at Poltava showed itself at the level of the army of any European country. At the same time, recruitment was used for the first time in Russia. This regiment formation system provided greater efficiency in manning the troops. In total, up to 1725, 53 recruits were carried out, according to which more than 280 thousand people were mobilized into the army and navy. Initially, one recruit from 20 households was taken into the army, and from 1724 they began to be recruited in accordance with the principles underlying the poll tax. Recruits underwent military training, received uniforms, weapons, while until the eighteenth century, soldiers - both nobles and peasants - had to appear for service in full gear. Unlike other European monarchs, Peter did not use mercenaries, preferring Russian soldiers to them.

Fuzeler (infantryman) army infantry regiment 1720

A distinctive feature of the new army was the duty of the nobles to carry out military service from the rank of soldier. Since 1714, nobles were forbidden to be promoted to officers if they were not soldiers. The most capable nobles were sent to study abroad, especially in naval affairs. But training was also carried out in domestic schools: Bombardier, Preobrazhenskaya, Navigatskaya. By the end of Peter's reign, 50 schools were opened to train non-commissioned officers.

Much attention was paid to the fleet: at the end of the seventeenth century, ships were built in Voronezh and Arkhangelsk, and after the founding of St. Petersburg, military shipbuilding moved to the Baltic coast. In the future capital, the Admiralty and shipyards were founded. The sailors for the navy were also recruited by recruiting.

The need to maintain a new army, which required significant expenses, forced Peter to modernize the economy and finances.

Economic reforms of Peter the Great

The first military failures forced Peter to think seriously about creating a domestic industry that could meet the needs of wartime. Prior to that, almost all iron and copper were imported from Sweden. Naturally, with the outbreak of the war, supplies stopped. The existing Russian metallurgy was not enough for a successful war. The creation of conditions for its rapid development has become a vital task.

In the first decade of the Northern War, at the expense of the tsarist treasury, iron-making factories were built in the Urals and in the Olonets Territory. Transfer of state-owned enterprises to private hands began to be practiced. Sometimes they were even passed on to foreigners. Certain privileges were provided to those industries that provided the army and navy. Handicraft production remained the main competitor of manufactories, but the state sided with large-scale industry and prohibited craftsmen from producing cloth, iron smelted in hand forges, etc. A distinctive feature of state manufactories was that the government initially assigned entire villages and villages to enterprises only in the autumn-winter period, when it was not necessary to work in the field, but soon villages and villages were assigned to manufactures forever. In the patrimonial manufactories, the labor of serfs was used. In addition, there were also possessional manufactories, the owners of which, from 1721, were allowed to buy serfs for their factories. This was due to the government's desire to help industrialists secure workers for enterprises, due to the absence of a large labor market in the conditions of serfdom.

There were no good roads in the country, trade routes in the fall and spring turned into real swamps. Therefore, in order to improve trade, Peter decided to use the rivers available in sufficient quantities as trade routes. But the rivers had to be connected to each other, and the government began to build canals. For 1703-1709 to connect Petersburg with the Volga, the Vyshnevolotsky canal was built, the construction of the Mariinsky water system, the Ladoga canal, completed after the death of Peter, began.

Trade was also restrained by the existing monetary system: mainly small copper money was in use, and the silver penny was a rather large coin and it was chopped into pieces, each of which made its own trade route. In 1700-1704. a mint reform was carried out. As a result, the monetary system was based on the decimal principle: ruble - dime - penny. Many Western countries came to such a division much later. To facilitate foreign trade settlements, the ruble was equal in weight to the thaler, which was in circulation in a number of European countries.

The monopoly on the minting of money belonged to the state, and the export of gold and silver from the country was prohibited by a special decree of Peter the Great.

In foreign trade, following the teachings of the mercantilists, Peter achieved the predominance of exports over imports, which also contributed to the strengthening of trade. Peter pursued a protectionist policy in relation to the young domestic industry, imposing high duties on imported goods and low duties on exported ones. In order to prevent the export abroad of raw materials necessary for Russian industry, Peter imposed high duties on it. Almost all foreign trade was in the hands of the state, using monopoly trading companies for this.

The poll tax, introduced after the census of 1718–1724, instead of the previous household tax obliged landlord peasants to pay 74 kopecks a year and 1 ruble 14 kopecks of state peasants. The poll tax was a progressive tax, it abolished all previously existing petty taxes, and the peasant always knew the amount of taxes, since it did not depend on the amount of the crop. The black-haired peasants of the northern regions, Siberia, the peoples of the middle Volga, the townspeople and the bourgeoisie began to be taxed as well. The poll tax, which provided the treasury with most of the income (4,656,000 in 1725) gave direct taxes a significant advantage in the composition of the budget over other sources of income. The entire amount of the per capita tax went to the maintenance of the land army and artillery; the fleet was supported by customs and drinking fees.

In parallel with the economic reforms of Peter I, the private construction of factories began to develop. Among private entrepreneurs, the Tula breeder Nikita Demidov stands out, whom the Peter's government provided with great benefits and privileges.

Nikida Demidov

The Nevyansk plant "with all the buildings and supplies" and land 30 versts in all directions was given to Demidov on very favorable terms for the breeder. Demidov paid nothing upon receiving the plant. Only in the future was he charged with the obligation to return to the treasury its expenses for the construction of the plant: "although not all of a sudden, but in the weather." This was motivated by the fact that "a great profitable source came from those factories, and from one blast furnace in two releases per day of pig iron, little of it will be born from 400 poods, and in a year, if both blast furnaces are taken into account without hindrance throughout the year, it will be released into a smaller Article 260,000 poods ".

At the same time, the government, transferring the plant to Demidov, provided the breeder with state orders. He was obliged to put in the treasury iron, cannons, mortars, fusées, stagi, hatchets, broadswords, spears, armor, shishaks, wire, steel and other tackle. State orders were paid to Demidov very generously.

In addition, the treasury supplied Demidov with a free or almost free labor force.

In 1703, Peter I ordered: "Nikita Demidov, to multiply iron and other factories and sovereign supplies ... to assign to work and give the Verkhotursky district of the Aetsky, Krasno-Polish settlement and the monastery Pokrovskoye village with villages and with all the peasants, children and brothers and nephews both from the land and from all sorts of lands. " Soon there was a decree on the new registration of the peasants. By these decrees, Peter I gave Demidov to the Nevyansk plant about 2,500 peasants of both sexes. The breeder was only obliged to pay taxes for the peasants to the treasury.

Demidov's exploitation of the labor of the registered peasants had no limits. Already in 1708, the Nevyansk peasants complained about Demidov. The peasants pointed out that for their hard work they did not receive money from the factory owner "for no reason", as a result of this they "from him, Akinfiev, taxes and exorbitant exile became impoverished and utterly ruined", "and many brothers peasants scattered no one knows where ... and those that are out of him will scatter. "

This is how the Petrine government laid the foundation for the "Demidov Urals" with its boundless cruelty, serfdom and immense exploitation of peasants and workers.

Other entrepreneurs began to build factories in the Urals: the Osokins, Stroganovs, Tryapitsyn, Turchaninov, Vyazemsky, Nebogatov.

Cruelly exploiting the registered peasants and factory workers, serfs and civilians, Demidov quickly grows rich and expands his power and importance.

In the Urals, along with the Stroganovs, a new feudal lord grows up, formidable and cruel to his workers and peasants, greedy and predatory in relation to the treasury and neighbors.

Peter also clearly saw the need to reform the administration of the country. This reform finally consolidated the position of absolute power in Russia, destroying the order system, the Boyar Duma. Without it, the further development of the country in the new developing capitalist relations would have been impossible.

Administrative reforms of Peter I

At the end of 1708, Peter began the provincial reform. The decree of December 18 announced the Tsar's intention "to create eight provinces for the benefit of the whole people and to paint cities for them." As a result of the reform, the provinces were divided into provinces, and the provinces - into counties. At the head of the province was the governor, who possessed full judicial, administrative, police and financial power. The duties of the governors included the collection of taxes, the search for fugitive serfs, recruitment, the provision of army regiments with provisions and fodder. The order system received a serious blow after the implementation of this reform: many orders ceased to exist, since their functions and responsibilities were transferred to the provincial administration.

As a result of the second reform, the power of the governor extended only to the provinces of the provincial city, in the remaining provinces the power was possessed by the voivods, who were subordinate to the governors in military and judicial affairs.

On February 22, 1711, before going to Turkey, Peter issued a decree on the creation of the Senate. The decree also reflects the reason for the creation of this body: "they have determined to be absent from our Governing Senate for management." The Senate was supposed to replace the sovereign in his absence, therefore everyone was obliged to obey the decrees of the Senate, like the decrees of Peter himself, on pain of death for disobedience. The Senate initially consisted of nine people who decided cases unanimously, without which the Senate's verdict could not have validity. In 1722, the post of Attorney General of the Senate was created, designed to control the activities of the Senate. Prosecutors subordinate to him were appointed to all state institutions. In 1717-1721. 11 colleges were created on the Swedish model, replacing the orders that existed before. The peculiarity of the collegia was that they had a national level and controlled clearly defined aspects of public administration. This provided a higher level of centralization. The Chief Magistrate and the Holy Synod also acted as collegia. The board was headed by the president, decisions were made by a majority vote, in the event of an equality of votes, the president's vote was considered two. Joint discussion was the hallmark of collegial management.

After the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, Peter did not allow the election of a new patriarch, but introduced the position of locum tenens of the patriarchal throne. In 1721, the Holy Synod was formed, headed by a secular official - the chief prosecutor. So the church became a state institution, the priests took an oath that they were obliged to convey if they found out in confession about any anti-state intentions. For violation of the oath, the death penalty was threatened.

The decree on single inheritance of 1714 supported the interests of the local nobility, which supported the course of strengthening the absolute monarchy. According to the decree, the final merger of the two types of property of the patrimony and estates into a single legal concept of "immovable property" took place, they became equal in all respects. The estate became hereditary possession. The estates could not be split between the heirs, they were usually transferred to the eldest son, and the rest had to pursue a career in the military or civilian field: sons who did not receive an immovable estate, "will be forced to look for their bread by service, teaching, trading" or other useful activity.

The "Table of Ranks" was a natural continuation of this decree. All military and civil service positions were divided into 14 ranks. The report card introduced the principle of personal length of service and finally abolished the localism, abolished in 1682. Now the nobles could curry favor with the highest posts and really join the government. Moreover, this was due only to the personal qualities of a person, which did not allow people who were incapable of this to manage.

Huge successes in the economic, military and administrative fields would not have been possible without a sufficient number of highly educated specialists. But it would be irrational to send Russians to study abroad all the time, in Russia it was necessary to create its own educational system.

Education reform under Peter the Great

Before Peter, noblemen received education almost exclusively at home, but only elementary literacy and arithmetic were studied. Concern for education pervades the entire reign of Peter the Great. Already in 1698, the first group of nobles was sent to study abroad, this practice continued in subsequent years. Upon the return of the nobles, a rigorous examination awaited. Peter himself more than once acted as an examiner.

• The navigation school was opened already in 1701,
• in 1707 - Medical school,
• in 1712 - School of Engineering.

42 digital schools were opened for provincial nobles. Since the nobles were reluctant to study, Peter forbade them to marry until they graduated from digital school. There were schools for the children of artisans, mining workers, and garrison soldiers. The very concept of education has changed significantly: theological subjects faded into the background, mathematics, astronomy, engineering and other practical knowledge took the first place. New textbooks have appeared, for example, "Arithmetic" by L.F. Magnitsky. Studying during Peter's time was equated with public service. This time was also characterized by the rapid development of book printing. At the end of the first decade of the century, the civil script and Arabic numerals were introduced.

In 1714, the first state library was created, which became the basis for the library of the Academy of Sciences, opened after the death of the emperor, but conceived by himself.

One of the major events of that period was the emergence of the country's first newspaper. Vedomosti reported on events in the country and abroad.

In 1719 the Kunstkamera, the first Russian museum, was opened.

Reforms of Peter the Great in the sphere of culture and Russian life

Under Peter the Great, modernization even touched everyday life, that is, the outer side of Russian life. Peter the Great, striving to bring Russia closer to Europe, tried to eliminate even the external differences between the Russian people and the Europeans. In addition to the prohibition of beards, it was forbidden to wear long-length Russian dress. German, Hungarian or French toilets, in the opinion of old Moscow people, completely indecent, were also worn by noble wives and daughters. In order to educate Russians in a European spirit, Peter ordered his subjects to drink tea and coffee, smoke tobacco, which was not liked by all the nobles of the "old school". Peter forcibly introduced new forms of leisure - assemblies, that is, receiving guests in noble houses. They appeared with their wives and daughters. This meant the end of the terem seclusion of Russian women. The assemblies demanded the study of foreign languages, gallant manners, called "polites" in a foreign manner, and the ability to dance. The life of the nobility and the top of the merchant class was seriously changing.

The transformations in everyday life did not at all affect the masses of the urban population, and even more so the peasantry. The lifestyle of the nobility began to differ from the lifestyle of the common people so much that the nobleman, and subsequently any educated person, began to seem to the peasant a foreigner.

Along with the introduction of a new way of life, professions began to appear, serving the new needs of the nobility, merchants and wealthy townspeople. These were the hairdressers, barbers and other professions who came with Peter from the Great Embassy.

The transition to the new calendar also had something to do with the change in the outer side of Russian life. At the end of 1699, Peter ordered to keep chronology not from the creation of the world, but from the Nativity of Christ, but the transition was made not to the Gregorian calendar, but to the Julian calendar, which already had significant differences. In addition, Peter issued a decree on the celebration of the New Year on January 1, and as a sign of a good beginning to celebrate this holiday with cannon firing and fireworks.

Under Peter the Great, the first public Russian theater appeared. In 1702, German actors began to act out plays by foreign authors in the "comedy horomino" on Red Square in Moscow. Later, the theater of the Slavic-Greco-Roman Academy appeared, in which there was a Russian troupe and plays on modern themes were staged. Under Peter, the first portraits appeared, which, unlike the Parsuns, were completely free from the church canon and realistically depicted specific people. A new genre has appeared in literature - a story, the hero of which is an educated person who seeks to see the world, travel to distant countries and always achieves success. Such a motive was absolutely inconceivable for the works of the Moscow period.

At the beginning of the eighteenth century, the secular principle finally triumphed over the church in Russian culture. The main merit in this undoubtedly belongs to Peter, although the "secularization" of culture began before him, and attempts to bring European innovations to the country were made under his predecessors, but they did not take root.

Conclusion

At the turn of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Peter the Great carried out a series of reforms in the economic, military, political, administrative and cultural fields. This allowed Russia to enter the European political system and take a serious position in it. Peter forced the Western powers to reckon with the interests of the young empire. He brought the country to a new level of development, which allowed it to stand on a par with the European powers. But the reforms themselves, the methods by which they were carried out, cause ambiguous assessments of his activities so far.

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The reforms being carried out were dictated by the Northern War, the old state machine could not cope with the prolonged tension of the war years.

1. In 1701. created "consilia" (Council of Ministers). The Tsar stopped consulting the Boyar Duma (the last mention refers to 1704).

2. In 1711. Senate established(instead of consilia). The Senate was the legislative body. Leaving the Prut campaign (in 1711), Peter outlined the work of the Senate: maintaining trade, ensuring state revenues, controlling justice and recruiting nobles as officers. Decisions were taken collectively by the senators and came into force only with general consent. With the creation of the collegia, the role of the Senate has changed. He began to control the activities of the collegia, to appoint officials, was the highest court and at the same time a legislative body under the king. In 1722. the post of governor-general of the Senate ("the eye of the sovereign") was introduced, who protected the interests of the state and prevented malfeasance, prosecutors were subordinate to him. Yaguzhinsky became the first prosecutor general.

3. In 1718-1722. collegiums replaced orders... Each collegium was headed by the president, decisions were made by a majority vote. Each collegium (12) was in charge of a certain branch of management:

Foreign Collegium - headed by Golovkin;

Military Collegium - headed by Menshikov;

Admiralteyskaya - headed by Apraksin;

The chamber collegium was in charge of collecting income;

State Collegium - spent expenses;

Revision - the board - supervised the staff and cameras;

The Commerce Collegium was in charge of trade;

Berg-collegium - mining and metallurgy;

Manufacturing College - in charge of light industry;

Justice Collegium - in charge of legal proceedings and legislation;

Patrimony - land relations;

Chief Magistrate - administered the cities and the court affairs of the townspeople;

4.1707-1710 - provincial reform... Local government reform - the country is divided into 8 provinces headed by governors who were in charge of collecting taxes, recruiting recruits, and justice. Provinces were divided into provinces, provinces into discrimination.

5. In 1711. fiscal services appeared, undercover agents supervised officials. Received half of the fine, were not responsible for false denunciation.

6. In 1714. a decree on single inheritance was issued, forbidding the division of estates during their transfer by inheritance. The estates were transferred to one son, the younger ones had the right to buy an estate after serving 7 years. The distinction between the estate and the estate was destroyed ... Major- the system of inheritance of property, in which all property was transferred to the eldest son.

7 ... In 1701. Patriarch Adrian died, the new one was not elected. The church was headed by the Metropolitan of Ryazan Stefan Yavorsky. In 1721. the "Spiritual Regulations" was published, which spoke about the undesirability of electing a new patriarch.

PETROVSKY REFORMS.
Financial reform. It was held throughout the reign of Peter. A new set of taxes, large sales of tar, salt, alcohol. The penny becomes the main one and is firmly strengthened.Results: increase in the treasury.
Public administration reform. 1699 - 1721 Creation of the Near Chancellery (later Governing Senate) Results: the public administration system has become more perfect.
Provincial reform. 1708 - 1715, 1719 - 1720 Russia is divided into 8 provinces: Moscow, Kiev, Kazan, Ingermandland, Siberian, Azov, Smolensk, Arkhangelsk. Then the provinces will be divided into 50 more provinces. Result: there was a centralization of power.
Judicial reform. 1697, 1719, 1722 New judicial bodies were formed: the Senate, Justitz - Collegium, Hofgerichts, lower courts. The jury trial was canceled. Results: the permissiveness of the governors, the governors made changes to the testimony of the jury, which was not the best solution.
Military reform. from 1699 - until the death of Peter. The introduction of conscription, the creation of a fleet, tables of ranks, new military-industrial enterprises. Result: a regular army, new regiments, divisions, squadrons were created.
Church reform. 1700 - 1701 1721 Restoration of the Monastic Order. In 1721. the Spiritual Regulations were adopted, which deprived the church of independence. Results: the church completely submitted to the state. The decline of the clergy.

North War.
War algorithm:
Cause: between the Swedish Empire and the coalition of the North European states for the possession of the Baltic lands. Initially, the Northern Alliance declared war on Sweden. The Northern Union included: Russia, Denmark (later dropped out), Saxony. Countries - allies on the side of Russia: Hanover, Holland, Prussia. Countries - allies on the side of Sweden: Great Britain, the Ottoman Empire, Holstein. The commanders-in-chief are on the side of Russia: Peter I, Sherementyev, Menshikov. Commanders-in-chief on the side of Sweden: Charles XII. War begins: 1700. Total number of Russian soldiers: 32 thousand. Total number of Swedish soldiers: 8 thousand. Lost weapons of the countries: Russia - 8 thousand people, 145 guns and all food supplies. Sweden - 3 thousand people. At the very beginning of the war, Russia was at a loss. And the first trip to Sweden was a failure. Peter strove to recapture the Russian lands previously taken by Sweden. And open access to the sea (respectively, cutting a window to Europe). Another reason for the defeat of Russia is that most of the soldiers were hired and fled to the side of Sweden. There are only two regiments left - Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky. But the Russian army still managed to win. The young king of Sweden, after winning over Russia, went to war with Poland. Then the Battle of Poltava followed. For which RI was ready, Sweden was confused. For this battle, Peter thoroughly prepared his troops. Finally, RI won a victory over Sweden near the village of Lesnaya. Destroyed a train from Riga with food for Sweden. Lands and access to the sea were open. The victory remained with our troops.

Peter the First (1672 - 1725) - Russian tsar, independently ruled from 1689 to 1725. He carried out a large-scale reform of all areas of life in Russia. The artist Valentin Serov, who dedicated a number of works to Peter, described him as follows: “He was scary: long, on weak, thin legs and with a head so small in relation to the whole body that it should have looked more like some kind of stuffed animal with a badly attached head than a living person. There was a constant tick in his face, and he was always "making faces": blinking, twitching his mouth, moving his nose and clapping his chin. At the same time he walked with huge strides, and all his companions were forced to follow him at a run. " .

Preconditions for the reforms of Peter the Great

Peter accepted Russia as a backward country on the outskirts of Europe. Muscovy had no access to the sea, with the exception of the White, the regular army, navy, developed industry, trade, the system of government was antediluvian and ineffective, there were no higher educational institutions (only in 1687 the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was opened in Moscow), printing , theater, painting, libraries, not only the people, but many representatives of the elite: boyars, nobles, did not know literacy. The sciences did not develop. Serfdom prevailed.

Public administration reform

- Peter replaced orders that did not have clear responsibilities with collegia, the prototype of future ministries

• Collegium of Foreign Affairs
• Military college
• Marine College
• College for commercial affairs
• Collegium of Justice ...

The collegia consisted of several officials, the eldest was called the chairman or president. All of them were subordinate to the Governor-General, who was a member of the Senate. There were 12 colleges in total.
- In March 1711, Peter created the Governing Senate. At first, its function was to govern the country in the absence of the king, then it became a permanent institution. The Senate included presidents of the collegia and senators - people appointed by the king.
- In January 1722, Peter issued a "table of ranks" numbering 14 class ranks from the State Chancellor (first rank) to the collegiate registrar (fourteenth)
- Peter reorganized the secret police system. Since 1718, the Preobrazhensky Prikaz, in charge of political crimes, was transformed into the Secret Investigative Affairs Office

Church reform of Peter

Peter abolished the patriarchate, an ecclesiastical organization practically independent of the state, and created in its place the Holy Synod, all of whose members were appointed by the king, thereby eliminating the autonomy of the clergy. Peter pursued a policy of religious tolerance, facilitating the existence of the Old Believers and allowing foreigners to freely practice their faith.

Administrative reform of Peter

Russia was divided into provinces, provinces were divided into provinces, provinces into counties.
Provinces:

• Moscow
• Ingermandland
• Kievskaya
• Smolensk
• Azov
• Kazan
• Arkhangelsk
• Siberian
• Riga
• Astrakhan
• Nizhny Novgorod

Military reform of Peter

Peter replaced the irregular and noble militia with a permanent regular army, manned by recruits, recruited one from each of the 20 peasant or bourgeois households in the Great Russian provinces. He built a powerful military fleet, wrote a military manual himself, taking the Swedish one as a basis.

Peter turned Russia into one of the strongest maritime powers in the world, with 48 ships of the line and 788 galley and other ships

Peter's economic reform

The modern army could not exist without a state supply system. To supply the army and navy with weapons, uniforms, food, consumables, it was necessary to create a powerful industrial production. By the end of Peter's reign, about 230 factories and plants were operating in Russia. Factories focused on the production of glass products, gunpowder, paper, canvas, linen, cloth, paints, ropes, even hats were created, metallurgical, sawmill, and leather industries were organized. In order for the products of Russian craftsmen to be competitive on the market, high customs duties were imposed on European goods. Encouraging entrepreneurial activity, Peter made extensive use of the issuance of loans to create new manufactories and trading companies. The largest enterprises that arose in the era of Peter's transformations were those created in Moscow, St. Petersburg, the Urals, Tula, Astrakhan, Arkhangelsk, Samara

• Admiralty shipyard
• Arsenal
• Powder factories
• Metallurgical plants
• Linen production
• Potash, sulfur, saltpeter production

By the end of the reign of Peter I, Russia had 233 factories, including more than 90 large factories built during his reign. In the first quarter of the 18th century, 386 different ships were built at the shipyards of St. Petersburg and Arkhangelsk, at the beginning of the century Russia smelted about 150 thousand poods of pig iron, in 1725 - more than 800 thousand poods, Russia caught up with England in smelting pig iron

Peter's reform in education

The army and navy needed qualified specialists. Therefore, Peter paid great attention to their preparation. During the years of his reign they were organized in Moscow and St. Petersburg

• School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences
• artillery school
• engineering school
• medical school
• Marine Academy
• mining schools at the Olonets and Ural factories
• Digital schools for "children of every rank"
• Garrison schools for children of soldiers
• Spiritual schools
• Academy of Sciences (opened a few months after the death of the emperor)

Peter's reforms in the field of culture

• Publication of the first Russian newspaper "St. Petersburg Vedomosti"
• No boyars wearing beards
• Establishment of the first Russian museum - Kunskamera
• Claiming nobility wear European dress
• Creation of assemblies where nobles were to appear with their wives
• Creation of new printing houses and translation into Russian of many European books

Reforms of Peter the Great. Chronology

• 1690 - The first guards regiments of Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky were created
• 1693 - Creation of a shipyard in Arkhangelsk
• 1696 - Creation of a shipyard in Voronezh
• 1696 - Decree on the creation of an arms factory in Tobolsk
• 1698 - Decree prohibiting the wearing of a beard and ordering nobles to wear European clothes
• 1699 - Dissolution of the streltsy army
• 1699 - creation of commercial and industrial enterprises enjoying a monopoly
• 1699, December 15 - Decree on the reform of the calendar. New Year starts on January 1st
• 1700 - Creation of the Government Senate
• 1701 - Decree prohibiting kneeling at the sight of the sovereign and taking off his cap in winter, passing by his palace
• 1701 - Opening of the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences in Moscow
• 1703, January - publication of the first Russian newspaper in Moscow

• 1704 - Replacement of the Boyar Duma by a council of ministers - by the Council of Chiefs of Orders
• 1705 - First decree on recruiting
• 1708, November - Administrative Reform
• 1710, January 18 - decree on the official introduction of the Russian civil alphabet instead of the Church Slavonic
• 1710 - Foundation of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra in St. Petersburg
• 1711 - instead of the Boyar Duma, the Senate of 9 members and the chief secretary was created. Monetary reform: minting gold, silver and copper coins
• 1712 - Transfer of the capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg
• 1712 - Decree on the creation of horse breeding farms in Kazan, Azov and Kiev provinces
• 1714, February - Decree on the opening of digital schools for children of clerks and priests
• 1714, March 23 - Decree on the primacy (single succession)
• 1714 - Foundation of the State Library in St. Petersburg
• 1715 - Creation of shelters for the poor in all cities of Russia
• 1715 - Commission of the Commissariat to organize training of Russian merchants abroad
• 1715 - Decree on the encouragement of the cultivation of flax, hemp, tobacco, mulberry trees for silkworms
• 1716 - Census of all schismatics for double taxation
• 1716, March 30 - Adoption of the military charter
• 1717 - Introduction of free trade in grain, abolition of some privileges to foreign merchants
• 1718 - Replacement of Orders by Boards
• 1718 - Judicial reform. tax reform
• 1718 - Start of the population census (lasted until 1721)
• 1719, November 26 - Decree establishing assemblies - free assemblies for fun and business
• 1719 - Creation of an engineering school, establishment of the Berg Collegium for the management of the mining industry
• 1720 - Adopted the Naval Regulations
• 1721, January 14 - Decree on the creation of the Theological College (the future Holy Synod)

Convenient article navigation:

History table: Reforms of Emperor Peter I

Peter I is one of the most prominent rulers of the Russian state, who ruled from 1682 to 1721. During his reign, reforms were carried out in many areas, many wars were won, the foundation for the future greatness of the Russian Empire was laid!

Navigation in the table: Reforms of Peter 1:

Reforms in the field:	Reform date:	Reform name:	The essence of the reform:	Results and significance of the reform:
In the field of the army and navy:		1. Creation of a regular army	Creation of a professional army to replace the local militia and rifle troops. Formation on the basis of recruitment	Russia became a great military and naval power and won the Northern War, gaining access to the Baltic Sea
		2. Construction of the first Russian fleet	A regular military fleet appears
		3. Training of personnel and officials abroad	Training of military and sailors from foreign professionals
In the economic sphere:		1. Militarization of the economy	State support for the construction of metallurgical plants in the Urals. During the period of military difficulties - melting of bells into cannons.	An economic base has been created for conducting military operations - strengthening the state's defense
		2. Development of manufactories	Creation of many new manufactories Affiliation of peasants to enterprises (registered peasants)	Industry growth. The number of manufactories has grown 7 times. Russia is becoming one of the leading industrial powers in Europe. Many industries are being created and modernized.
		3. Trade reform	1. Protectionism - support for your manufacturer; export more goods than import; high customs duties on the import of foreign goods. 1724 - Customs tariff 2. Construction of canals 3. Search for new trade routes	Industrial growth and trade boom
		4. Handicraft	Association of artisans in workshops	Improving the quality and productivity of artisans
	1724 year	5. Tax reform	The capitation tax was introduced (it was collected from males) instead of the household tax.	Budget growth. Increasing the tax burden on the population
Reforms in the field of state and local self-government:	1711 year	1. Creation of the Governing Senate	10 people who made up the closest circle of the king. They helped the king in state affairs and replaced the king during his absence	Improving the efficiency of government agencies. Strengthening royal power
	1718 - 1720	2. Creation of colleges	11 collegia replaced many orders. The cumbersome and confusing system of executive power has been put in order.
	1721 year	3. Acceptance of the imperial title by Peter		Raising the authority of Peter 1 abroad. Discontent of the Old Believers.
	1714 year	4. Decree on single inheritance	Equated estates with estates, nobles with boyars. Only one son inherited the property	Elimination of the division into boyars and nobles. The emergence of landless nobility (due to the ban on crushing the land between the heirs) After the death of Peter 1, canceled.
	1722 year	5. Adoption of the Table of Ranks	There are 14 ranks for officials and the military. Having reached the 8th rank, the official became a hereditary nobleman	Opportunities for career development opened up for everyone, regardless of origin
	1708 year	6. Regional reform	The country was divided into eight provinces	Strengthening the authority of local authorities. Putting things in order
	1699 year	Urban reform	An elective Burmister chamber was created	Development of local self-government
Church reforms:	1700 year	1. Liquidation of the Patriarchate		The emperor became the de facto head of the Orthodox Church
	1721 year	2. Creation of the Synod	Replaced the patriarch, the composition of the Synod was appointed by the tsar
In the sphere of folk culture and everyday life:		1. Introduction of European style	Obligatory wearing of European clothes and shaving of beards - tax payment was introduced for refusal.	Many were dissatisfied, the king was called the Antichrist
		2. Introduction of a new chronology	The chronology from the Nativity of Christ changed the chronology "from the creation of the world." The beginning of the year has been postponed from September to January.	Instead of 7208, the year 1700 came. The chronology has survived to this day
		3. Introduction of the civil alphabet
		4. Transfer of the capital to St. Petersburg	Peter did not like Moscow with its "rooted antiquity", he built a new capital near the sea	The “window to Europe” has been cut. High mortality among city builders
In the field of education and science:		1. Education reform	Training of specialists abroad Creation of schools in Russia Support of book publishing business	Improving the quality of education, the number of educated people. Training of specialists. Serfs could not attend public schools
	1710 year	2. Introduction of the civil alphabet	Replaced the old Church Slavonic alphabet
		3.Creation of the first Russian Museum of the Kunstkamera
	1724 year	4. Decree on the establishment of the Academy of Sciences	Was created after the death of Peter 1