Australian mineral resources. Australia: Natural Resources and Use
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Natural conditions and resources
Australia is rich in a variety of minerals. New discoveries of mineral ores made on the continent over the past 10-15 years have put forward a country for one of the first places in the world in stocks and mining of such minerals as iron ore, bauxite, lead-zinc ores.
The largest iron ore deposits in Australia, which began to be developed since the 60s of our century, are located in the Hammersley Range area in the north-west of the country (Mount-Newman deposits, Mount Goldsurta, etc.). Iron ore is also available on the Islands of Kulan and Cocatus in the King Bay (in the North-West), in the state of South Australia in the Ridge Middleback (Iron-Nob, etc.) and Tasmania - the Savid River Depositor (in the R. Savidge valley).
Large deposits of polymetals (lead, zinc with admixture of silver and copper) are located in the Western desert part of the state of the new South Wales - the Broken Hill deposit. An important center for the extraction of non-ferrous metals (copper, lead, zinc) has developed near the Mount Isa (Queensland state). The deposits of polymetals and copper are also available on Tasmania (Rid-Rybery and Mount Layel), copper - in Tennant Creek (Northern Territory) and in other places.
The main stocks of gold are focused on the protrusions of the Precambrian foundation and in the south-west of the mainland (Western Australia), in the area of \u200b\u200bCalgohli and Kulgardi cities, Norsmen and Willun, as well as in Queensland. Smaller deposits are found in almost all states.
Boxites lie on Cape York Peninsula (Weip field) and Arnheneland (GOV deposit), as well as in the southwest, in the Darling Ridge (Dzhardale deposit).
Uranium deposits are found in various parts of the mainland: in the north (Arnheland Peninsula) - not far from the Rivers South and East Allygetor, in the state of South Australia - about Oz. FROOM, in the state of Queensland - Mary Catlin deposit and in the western part of the country - the Yillierry deposit.
The main deposits of stone coal are located in the eastern part of the mainland. The largest deposits of both coking and non-countering stone coal are being developed near the cities of Newcastle and Lithgo (New South Wales) and Collinsville cities, Blair-Atol, Bluff, Baralaba and Mouura Kiang in Queensland.
Geological surveys have established that in the depths of the Australian mainland and on the shelf of its coasts are large fields of oil and natural gas. Oil was found and is mined in the state of Queensland (Muni, Olton and Bennette deposit), on the island of Barrow from the north-west coast of the mainland, as well as on the continental shelf at the South Coast of Victoria (Kingfish deposit). Gas deposits (the largest Ranken field) and oil were also found on the shelf from the northwestern banks of the mainland.
In Australia, there are large chromium deposits (Queensland), Gingin, Dongara, Mandarra (Western Australia), Marlin (Victoria).
Of non-metallic minerals there are various clay, sands, limestone, asbestos, as well as mica.
Water resources of the continent itself are small, but the most developed river network on the island of Tasmania. The rivers there have mixed raindrops and snow meals and are broken throughout the year. They flow from the mountains and therefore bourgeois, pores and have large hydropower reserves. The latter is widely used for the construction of hydroelectric power plants. The presence of cheap electricity contributes to the development of energy-intensive industries, such as the smelting of pure electrolyte metals, the manufacture of cellulose dr.
Rivers flowing from the eastern slopes of a large waterprooper - short, in the upwards flow in narrow gorges. Here they may well be used, and partly are already used to build hydropower plants. When leaving the coastal plain, the river slows down their current, their depth is increasing. Many of them are even available for large ocean vessels. Clarence River Shipping is 100 km from the mouth, and Hoxbury is 300 km away. The amount of flow and mode of these rivers are different and depend on the amount of precipitation and the time of their loss.
On the western slopes of the large waterproof ridge, they take the beginning of the river, laying their way to internal plains. In the area of \u200b\u200bMount Kosyushko, the most popular river in Australia - Murray begins. In the mountains, its largest tributaries - Darling, Marrambiji, Gowlbury and some others are born.
Power p. Murray and its ducts mainly rain and to lesser extent snow. These rivers are most full on the beginning of summer, when snow melts in the mountains. In a dry season, they are very melting, and some of the tributaries of Murrey are disintegrated into separate standing reservoirs. The constant course (except exclusively dry years) remains only Murray and Marrambiji. Even Darling, the longest river Australia (2450 km), during summer droughts, lost in the sands, does not always reaches Murrey.
Almost all the rivers of the Murree system are built dams and dams, near which reservoirs are created, where flooded water used for irrigation of fields, gardens and pastures are collected.
The rivers of the North and Western coasts of Australia shallow water and relatively small. The longest of them - Flinders falls into the Bay of Carpenary. These rivers have raindrops, and their aquifers change greatly at different times of the year.
Rivers whose flows are sent to the inner fields of the mainland, such as Cooper Creek (Barca), Diamant-Ina, etc., are deprived of not only a constant flow, but also a constant, distinctly pronounced bed. In Australia, such temporary rivers are called cries. They are filled with water only during short-term showers. Soon after the rain, the river bed turns into a dry sandy hollow, often does not even have certain outlines.
Most Lakes Australia, like rivers, feed on rainwater. They do not have a permanent level, nor the flow. In the summer of the lake dry and constitute a shallow salt challenge. The salt layer at the bottom sometimes reaches 1.5 m.
In the surrounding Australia, the seas are mined the marine beast, fish. In marine waters are breeding edible oysters. In warm coastal waters in the north and northeast, fishery of marine trepaggov, crocodiles and pearl mollusks are carried out. The main center of artificial breeding of the latter is located in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Koberg Peninsula (Arnheland). It is here, in the warm waters of the Arafura Sea and the Bay of Wang Diememen, the first experiments were carried out on the creation of special precipitation. These experiences were held by one of the Australian companies with the participation of Japanese specialists. It was found that mollusks-pearls grown in warm waters near the North Coast of Australia, give a larger pearl than the coast of Japan, and significantly a shorter period. Currently, the breeding of Mollusks-pearls is widely spread throughout the northern and partly northeastern coasts.
Since the Australian mainland has long time, starting from the middle of the Cretaceous period, was insulated from other parts of the globe, its plant world is very peculiar. Of the 12 thousand species of higher plants, more than 9 thousand - endemics, i.e. Grow out only on the Australian continent. Among endemics are many types of eucalyptus and acacias, the most typical of Australia plants. At the same time, there are also plants that are inherent in South America (for example, South Beech), South Africa (representatives of the protein family) and the islands of the Malay Archipelago (Ficus, Pandanus, etc.). This suggests that many millions of years ago there were land connections between the continents.
Since the climate of most of the territory of Australia is distinguished by a sharp dryness, dubbed plants dominate in her flora: special cereals, eucalyptus, umbrella acacia, succulent trees (bottle and dr.). Trees belonging to these communities have a powerful root system, which is 10-20, and sometimes 30 m goes to the ground, so that they, like a pump, suck moisture from large depths. Narrow and dry leaves of these trees are painted mostly in a dull gray-greenish color. In some of them, the leaves are addressed to the sun by an edge, which helps to reduce the evaporation of water from their surface.
In the extreme north and north-west of the country, where hot and warm northwestern monsions bring moisture, rain rainforests grow. In their wood composition, giant eucalyptus, ficuses, palm trees, pandanas with narrow long leaves and others are prevailed, and others. Thick foliage of trees forms almost solid cover, shadowing the Earth. Bamboo bamboo meets places on the coast itself. In those places where the shores are flat and etc, mangall vegetation develops.
Rainforests in the form of narrow galleries are stretched at relatively small distances inside the mainland according to the valleys of rivers.
The farther to the south, the land becomes climate and the hot breath of the desert is felt. Forest cover gradually radically. Eucalyptus and umbrella acacia are located in groups. This is a zone of wet savannah, stretching in the latitudinal direction south of the rainforest zone. In its own way, savanna with rare trees resemble parks. Shrub's teenager in them is not. Sunlight freely penetrates through the lattoon of small leaves of trees and falls on the ground, covered with high thick grass. Landshed savannah are beautiful pastures for sheep and cattle.
Conclusion: Australia is rich in a variety of minerals. Australia is on a large mainland and it shows the diversity of resources. Australia is mostly deserted mainland.
The main natural wealth of the country is mineral resources. The provision of Australia is a natural resource potential 20 times higher than the average level. The country occupies 1st place in the world in the reserves of bauxite (1/3 of world stocks and 40% of production), zirconium, 1st place in the world in the reserves of uranium (1/3 of the world) and 3rd place (after Kazakhstan and Canada ) By its extraction (8022 tons in 2009). The country ranks 6th in the world in coal reserves. It has significant reserves of manganese, gold, diamonds. In the south of the country (Brownlow deposit), as well as in the northeast and northwestern shores in the shelf area there are minor fields of oil and natural gas.
The largest iron ore deposits in Australia, which began to be developed since the 60s of the 20th century, are located in the Hammersli Range area in the north-west of the country (Mount-Newman deposits, Mount Goldsurta, etc.). Iron ore is also available on the Islands of the King and Cocatu in the King Bay (in the North-West), in the state of South Australia in the Ridge Middleback (Iron-Nob, etc.) and Tasmania - the Savid River deposit (in the valley of the R. Savidge).
Large deposits of polymetals (lead, zinc with admixture of silver and copper) are located in the Western desert part of the state of the new South Wales - the Broken Hill deposit. An important center for non-ferrous metals has developed near the Mount Isa (in Queensland state). The deposits of non-ferrous metals are also available on Tasmania (Rid-Rybury and Mount Layella), copper - in Tennant Creek (Northern Territory) and in other places.
The main stocks of gold are focused on the protrusions of the Precambrian foundation and in the south-west of the mainland (Western Australia), in the area of \u200b\u200bCalgohli and Kulgardi cities, Norsmen and Willun, as well as in Queensland. Smaller deposits are found in almost all states.
Boxites lie on Cape York Peninsula (Weip field) and Arnheneland (GOV deposit), as well as in the southwest, in the Darling Ridge (Dzhardale deposit).
The uranium deposits were found in various parts of the mainland: in the north (Proshnolend Peninsula) - not far from the Rivers of South and East Allygetor, in the state of South Australia - near Lake From, in Queensland, the Mary Catlin field and the Western part of the country - the Yillierry deposit.
The main deposits of stone coal are located in the eastern part of the mainland. The largest deposits of both coking and non-countering stone coal are being developed near the cities of Newcastle and Lithgo (New South Wales) and Collinsville cities, Blair-Atol, Bluff, Baralaba and Mouura Kiang in Queensland.
Geological surveys have established that in the depths of the Australian mainland and on the shelf of its coasts are large fields of oil and natural gas. Oil was found and is mined in the state of Queensland (Muni, Olton and Bennette deposit), on the island of Barrow from the north-west coast of the mainland, as well as on the continental shelf at the South Coast of Victoria (Kingfish deposit). Gas deposits (the largest Ranken field) and oil were also found on the shelf from the northwestern banks of the mainland.
It is the largest country in the world and takes about 5% of the Sushi of the planet or 7.69 million km². It is washed by the waters of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. In Australia, there are many natural resources, however, minerals are most economically important, which are exported to other countries of the world and bring significant economic benefits.
Water resources
Australia is the most dry populated continent of the Earth, which is characterized by one of the highest water consumption levels in the world. Basically represented by surface waters in the form of rivers, lakes, reservoirs, dams and reservoirs for rainwater, as well as underground aquifers. As an island continent, Australia is completely dependent on rainfall (rain and snow) for its water supply. Artificial reservoirs are crucial for maintaining water supply on the mainland.
Among the OECD countries (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development), Australia ranks fourth place for water consumption. The total volume of the annual water flow is about 243 billion m³, and the total amount of groundwater replenishment is 49 billion m³, which gives a total influx of water resources at 292 billion m³. Only 6% of the water flow of Australia is located in the Murray Darling basin, where water use is 50%. The total capacity of the large variety of Australia is about 84 billion m³.
In Australia, the use of regenerated water is common (this is purified wastewater, not suitable for drinking and are intended for re-technical use) for irrigation of green plantings, golf courses, crops or industrial use.
Forest resources
Australia is diverse and are among the most important natural resources of the continent.
Australia has many forests, despite the fact that it is considered one of the most dry continents. There are about 149.3 million hectares of natural forests on the mainland, which is about 19.3% of the Sushi area of \u200b\u200bAustralia. Most of Australia trees are deciduous breeds, usually eucalyptus. Of these, 3.4% (5.07 million hectares) are classified as the primary forest, the most biologically diverse and saturated with carbon.
The natural forests of Australia are found in a large range of geographic landscapes and climatic conditions, and contain a wide range of predominantly endemic species (that is, species that are no longer found anywhere) forming unique and complex. Forests represent a series of wood and non-timber products, which Australians are used in everyday life. They also provide cleanliness of water, protect the soil, provide opportunities for recreation, tourism, as well as scientific and educational activities, support cultural, historical, and aesthetic values.
The forest industry of the continent won from the development of trees plantations, which give 14 times more wood on hectares of land than natural forests. Currently, plantations provide more than two thirds of Wood Australia. In these territories, fast-growing trees are dominated, such as eucalyptus and pine trees. The main types of forest products are timber, wood plates, paper and wood chips.
Mineral resources
Australia is one of the world's largest manufacturers of minerals. The most important continents are bauxites, gold and iron ore. Other minerals mainland include copper, lead, zinc, diamonds and mineral sands. Most mineral resources are mined in Western Australia and Queensland. Many minerals mined in Australia are exported abroad.
Australia has extensive coal deposits. Basically, it is found in the eastern part of the country. 2/3 of Australian coal are exported mainly to Japan, Korea, Taiwan and Western Europe. The rest of the coal mined in Australia is burned to produce electricity.
Natural gas is also common in the country. Its reserves are mainly located in Western and Central Australia. Since most of these deposits are removed from urban centers, the gas pipelines were built for the transportation of natural gas to such cities like Sydney and Melbourne. PART OF NATURAL GAS is exported. For example, natural gas extracted in Western Australia is exported directly to Japan in liquid form.
Australia also contains a third of the global uranium reserves. Uranus is used to produce nuclear energy. However, the nuclear power and mining of uranium are very contradictory, since people are concerned about the harmful effect on the environment due to its radioactive properties.
Land resources
Land use has a significant impact on Australia's natural resources by exposure to water, soil, nutrients, plants and animals. There is also a robust link between the changing land use structures and economic, and social conditions, especially in regional Australia. Land use information shows how to use products, including production (such as agricultural crops,
Wood, etc.) and land protection activities, biodiversity protection, and natural resources.
The total area of \u200b\u200bagricultural land is 53.4%, of which: arable land - 6.2%, constant cultures - 0.1%, permanent pastures - 47.1%.
About 7% of the Land Resources of Australia are allocated to nature conservation. Other protected areas, including aboriginal land, cover more than 13% of the country.
Forestry has a tendency to be limited to the regions of Australia with a higher level of precipitation and occupies almost 19.3% of the continent. Earth settlements (mostly urban) occupy about 0.2% of the country's area. Other land uses are 7.1%.
Biological resources
Livestock breeding
Livestock is one of the leading agricultural sectors of Australia. For a sheep's population, the country ranks first in the world, and in some years it gives more than 1/4 world wool production. On the territory of the country, also divorced cattle, and by-product includes meat, milk, oil, cheese, etc. Exported to other countries and brings a total income of more than 700 million US dollars a year, while Indonesia is the largest consumer of meat.
Crop production
Australia is one of the largest producers in the world and exporters of grain crops. The most important cultural culture is wheat, the sowing area of \u200b\u200bwhich exceeds 11 million hectares. Other Australian cultures include barley, corn, sorghum, triticale, peanuts, sunflower, safflow, rape, canola, soy, etc.
Sugar cane, bananas, pineapples (mainly Queinsland), citrus (South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales), and others are also grown in the country.
Flora and fauna
Flora and fauna Australia are plants and animals that live on its territory. Animal and vegetable world of Australia is unique and significantly different from the wildlife of other continents.
About 80% of Australian plant species are found only on this continent. Local plants include: eucalyptus, casuarins, acacia, spinfect grass and flowering plants, including banks and angosantos, etc.
In Australia, there are many unique animals. From local Australian animal species: 71% of mammals and birds, 88% of reptile species and 94% of amphibian species are endemics. There is about 10% of the biodiversity of our planet.
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BUT allas , one of the highly developed countries of the world, attracts its mild climate and in the same soft immigration legislation. She opens its doors for specialists with experience and businessmen.
ANDmmigration to Australia - This is an opportunity not only to live in a highly developed country, but also by passing the exam for citizenship after 4 years of residence in the country and having received citizenship without visas to move around the world.
T. ac same Being one of the economically developed and stable countries of the world is open to free immigration. In other words, almost any person with the formation and experience of work can choose it as its place of residence. The principles and laws of immigration are pretty simple and understandable - to disassemble them to everyone.
E. then the only country of the world , occupying the territory of the whole mainland of the same name, as well as about. Tasmania and adjacent islands. The country is located in the southern and eastern hemispheres, washed by the seas of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. In the north is washed by Torosky, the Arafur seas and the Strait Torres, in the East - Coral and Tasmann seas, in the south - the Bass Strait and the Indian Ocean, in the West - the Indian Ocean. The coastline is weakly cut. In the country, there are 3 time zones (ahead of Moscow for 6 to 8 hours). Time in Sydney is ahead of Moscow in winter at 7 o'clock, in summer - on 8. In addition, the time also changes from the state to the state, where half an hour is sometimes added to the belt time.
BUTvstrange was open Bill Yanzon in 1606. The population of the country at the time was Australian Aborigines, who settled there more than 42 thousand years ago. In 1770, the country was declared the colony of the British Empire, and in 1901, all Australian colonies united in the Australian Union, fully obeying the English Queen.
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Australia - The sixth country in the world in terms of territory, and this is the only state in the whole continent. The Australian Union includes Australian mainland and several islands, the largest of which is Tasmania. On the territory of the mainland, a variety of nature is adjacent to modern densely populated megalopolis. Although the most part of the continent is occupied by semi-deserts and deserts, in Australia there are a variety of landscapes: - from alpine meadows to tropical jungle. Australia has become a house for unique types of flora and fauna, some of which are not found in other corners of the planet. Many plants and animals, including gigantic silent, extinct with the advent of aborigines; Others (for example, Tasmansky Tiger) - with the advent of Europeans. Australian continent is an ideal place to occupy any water sports. Surfing, wind surfing, diving, water skiing, rowing and yachting - all this is on the services of holidaymakers on the coast. If it does not impark you, go on a walk along one of the many reserves, shove on a bike or riding. In addition, you can go on safari or climbing climbing. The attractiveness of Australia is imprisoned not only in the nature of the mainland. They contribute here to their contribution and landscaped cities, centers of cultural and business life of the state. In all megalopolis - be it Sydney, Canberra, Melbourne or any other major city, - historical sights are coordinated with skyscrapers, cozy parks - with crowded streets, and a variety of museums with gorgeous shops. When you leave Australia, you, of course, will want to take care of anything for memory, something that will remind you of traveling to this wonderful country. In souvenir shops, you can purchase various handmade products created by the aborigines, clothes from the finest sheep wool, and in jewelry stores - decorations from famous Australian opals, elegant pearls or pink diamonds. Availability of immigration Australia, being one of the economically developed and stable countries of the world, is open to free immigration. In other words, almost any person with the formation and experience of work can choose it as its place of residence. The principles and laws of immigration are pretty simple and understandable - to disassemble them to everyone. Climate Australia The Australian continent is located within the three main warm climatic belts of the southern hemisphere: subequatorial (in the north), tropical (central) and subtropical (in the south). Only a small part of Tasmania island is within a moderate belt. In the winter, which falls on June, July and August, sometimes snow falls, but it is not saved for a long time. The subequator climate, characteristic of the northern and northeastern part of the continent, is distinguished by a smooth temperature of temperatures (during the year the average air temperature of 23-40 degrees) and a large amount of precipitation (from 1000 to 1500 mm, and in places more than 2000mm.). The further south, the stronger the change of seasons is noticeable. In the central and western parts of the continent in the summer (December-February), the average temperatures rise to 30 degrees, and sometimes above, and in winter (June-August) decrease by an average of up to 10-15 degrees. In the center of the continent, in the summer season, the temperature rises to 45 degrees, it drops at night to zero and below (-4-6 degrees). |
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Museums of Australia
Sydney
In Sydney, a large number of interesting cultural facilities - the famous Sydney Museum of History and Anthropology of Australia, the Military Memorial Art Gallery, the National Maritime Museum (really an interesting place - everything is collected here about the sea and focus - from the Aboriginal boats to battleships and surfing boards), artistic Gallery of the new South Wales, Museum of Applied Art and Science, one of the most "bold" museums of the world - Museum of Contemporary Art, Museum of Antiquity Nicholson, Australian Wild Park and Hyde Park.
Melbourne
Melbourne is often called the "cultural capital of the Southern Hemisphere." Nowadays, the Compact Center of Melbourne is filled with museums, galleries and excellent shops, but most of the city are occupied by parks, squares and royal botanical garden. The National Gallery and the Victoria Museum, the Museum of Modern Australian Art, St. Patrick Cathedral, James Cook and the Old Mint of the city, are also interesting.
Perth
You can visit the Gallery of the Fine Arts of Western Australia, where the works of foreign and Australian masters are exhibited, including the masterpieces of the traditional art of the Aborigines who affect the technique of their performance. No less interesting is the Museum of Western Australia, talking about the nature of the state, his history, about the largest meteorite Crater of the world in Wolf Creek, and, of course, about the indigenous people - the aborigines.
Darwin
In the very city it is interesting to visit the Uni-Point Military Museum in the country, the original art gallery and culture of the Aborigines, the farm of graze crocodiles and the Darwin Botanical Garden.
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Ayers Rock Unusual on his red Rocky Monolith Uluru has long been the emblem of Central Australia. This is the oldest and largest monolithic rock on Earth (its age about 500 million years). It produces an amazing impression and because it is towers in the middle of a completely flat surface, and because it changes its shades at sunset and sunrise. Many tourists and photographers come to admire this particular magic game of light. This rock has also been and remains the sacred place of the Aborigines. On it you can see the rock paintings. |
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Great Barrier Reef One of the most famous sights of Australia is a large barrier reef, the largest coral construction in the world. This is a huge system of reefs and islands, stretching at 2,010 km. Along the eastern coast of the country, from Cape York almost to Brisbane. For more than 20 years, the barrier reef is a national park. |
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Blue MountainsBlue Mountains (Blue Mountains) - a unique natural reserve near Sydney. Here, as in many other corners of Australia, nature carefully persists as it was thousands of years ago. Covered by eucalyptus forests, the mountains from afar seem, really blue - due to evaporation of eucalyptus oils. From sightseeing platforms, excellent panoramas of forest covered mountains, sheer rocks, deep valleys and canyons are opening. |
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Bridge Harbor Bridge It is also called "Cat Khanger" - due to the fact that it looks like a giant hanger. This is one of the longest bridges in the world (503 meters). Open in 1932 and by the time of the completion of construction cost 20 million dollars. And today, motorists, moving to the southern part of Sydney, pay 2 dollars for travel, covering the cost of the contents of the bridge. The bridge peil closest to the opera theater is open to the visit. From the observation deck there is a circular panorama of Sydney, this is a comfortable place for photo and video filming. |
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Sydney Tower Sydney Tower is the highest building in southern semi-hood (height 304.8 m). Here is an observation deck, rotating shops and restaurants. |
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Sydney Opera Of all the attractions of Australia, Sydney opera attracts the greatest number of tourists. The famous Sails of the Opera House is a symbol not only Sydney, but also of all Australia. Some consider the Opera House with a magnificent sample of "frozen music." The architect himself said that he created a sculpture, inside which posted theatrical premises. "You never get tired of it (buildings), it will never get bored." He predicted. And he was right - the opera building does not cease to admire, no matter how much we admire them. |
| Sydney Aquarium Sydney Aquarium (Sydney Aquarium) - a magnificent marine park. Here you can observe stock fish and marine animals in picturesque aquariums or from underwater tunnels, where above the head |
Economy Australia: Industry, Foreign Trade, Agriculture
The Australian Economy is a developed market system of the Western Sample. The level of GDP per capita is close to the main Western European countries. The country was recognized as the third of 170 through the human development index (human development index) and the sixth of the quality of life according to the method of the magazine "Economist" (2005). The growth of the economy continues, despite the global economic crisis. One of the main reasons for success is economic reforms - privatization, deregulation and reform of the tax system conducted by the Government of Howard.
In Australia, there was no recession since the early 1990s. In April 2005, unemployment decreased to 5.1%, reaching the lowest level since the 1970s. Now the unemployment is 4.3%. The services sector, including tourism, education and banks, is 69% of GDP. Agriculture and mining of natural resources - 3% and 5% of GDP, but at the same time constitute a noticeable share of exports. Main buyers of Australian products -, South Korea and New Zealand. Many economists are concerned, however, a large foreign trade deficit.
Energy Australia
Australia is relatively well provided with energy mineral resources. This country accounts for 8% of world coal reserves and 15% of brew coal reserves, and in the reserves of Urania Australia probably ranks second in the world, yielding only former USSR. Oil resources in Australia are limited, and gas is great. The use of hydroenergy resources is possible only in the snowy mountains and Tasmania, due to this source, 10% of the entire electricity generated in the country is provided.
Australian transport
Large distances are the main obstacle that had to overcome the economy of Australia. Sea transportation has always been necessary to move heavy bulk cargoes that were mainly produced in Australia. In the 1995-1996 fiscal year, the cargo turnover of the ports of Australia amounted to almost 400 million tons of international bulk cargoes (of which 70% accounted for the share of iron ore and coal) and 22 million tons of international nemas. In terms of bulk traffic, leading positions occupied the ports of the Dampier (iron ore), Port Hedland (iron ore), Newcastle (stone coal and iron ore) and Hay Point (stone coal). The capitals of all states are located on the coasts and are total type cargo ports. Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane and Fremantle (Avantport Perth) are the largest ports in terms of total cargo turnover. The most significant carrier is the state company "Ostrehien Nessen Line", which in 1996 belonged to 10 ships.
The first Australian railway was built in Melbourne in 1854. The non-coordinated construction of roads with a different rut width conducted by the colonial authorities led to the creation of a system that was uncomfortable, expensive and low-efficient. The first priority was the translation of the national railway system to a single standard rut. In this regard, the restructuring of the Adelaide railway line was important - Melbourne in 1995.
The Australian government considered railways as a means of mastering the country. The maximum length - 42,000 km - was achieved in 1921. Subsequently, the network length declined somewhat, and in 1996 the movement was maintained on public railways with a total length of 33,370 km. In addition, there were still private lines that belonged to the main mining companies of iron ore, including the Mount-Newman line of 425 km and the Hammersley line of 390 km (both in the Pilbar area in Western Australia). The system of state railways, for a long time, separately managed by different states, in 1991 was reconnected by the National Railway Corporation.
Automotive roads are vital for the transport of goods and passengers. In 1995, one registered carrier accounted for every 1.65 people. The total length of the road network in 1997 was 803,000 km, but it is unevenly distributed. Only the eastern, southeastern and south-western regions of the country are sufficiently provided with roads. Only 40% of all roads has a solid coating - asphalt or concrete. Many roads are only roughly dacified or differ little from the trail, others have a gravel or loose stone coating. In rural and remote areas in the wet season, the road communication is sometimes interrupted for weeks. Currently, there is a ring road with a solid coating, a mechanical mainland, and the submeridional road Darwin - Adelaide. In Australia, there is a national road system financed by the federal government. It includes more than 1000 km of free use of free use, and in the 1990s, the construction of paid roads by private contractors began (especially in the Melbourne region).
The development of air transport in Australia helped to establish a message with the outside world and within the country. On the interior lines, passenger transportation is provided mainly by Kuontas and Antestet airlines. For decades, the principle of functioning of two airlines was carried out by the federal government, and one of them ("Antestet") was private, and the other ("Transstorelin Erostez" or "Ostrogen Erostez") is state. In addition, the international transportation was engaged in the State Company "QUONTAS". In the 1990s, QUONTAS and Ostrhygen Erostez merged, the United Kontas company was privatized and now serves domestic and international flights. In addition, Ancentt also began to serve international flights. The internal lines are currently open to competition, but none of small companies can compete with Quontas and Antestet.
In Australia, there are 428 styled places for the reception and departure of aircraft - from major international airports to the runway serving the sheep-water ranch. Thanks to air transport, even in extensive small-populated areas of the country is regularly delivered by mail, fresh fruits and vegetables, and the ambulance has been established. Airplanes are also used for planting seeds, making fertilizers for pastures and transportation of a wide variety of cargo.
Agriculture Australia
Since 1795, when the first white settlers passed into partial self-sustaining the main foods, and before the end of World War II, agriculture, and especially sheep fell, was the foundation of the Australian economy. Although, as the industry develops, agriculture has lost their leading position, this industry is still at the heart of the country's welfare. In 1996-1997, it gave almost 3% of the gross national product and 22% of export revenues.
The expression "Australia riding riding on the sheep" justified itself throughout the hundred years - from 1820 to about 1920. Using several Spanish merino from the cape from the cape, as well as others brought a little later from England, John MacArthur and his wife Elizabeth by Careful crossing brought a new breed - Australian Merinos. The mechanization of the English textile industry led to the demand for thin-fledged wool, which Australia was able to satisfy from 1820. In 1850, there were 17.5 million sheep in this country. After 1860, the money received from the Golden Muses of Victoria was spent on the expansion of sheep. In 1894, sheep's population exceeded 100 million. In 1970, sheep's population in Australia reached a record high level - 180 million. However, as a result of a sharp drop in wool prices in the world market in 1997, it decreased to 123 million.
In 1974, a proposal was made to introduce the lower level of the auction prices for wool, and it was successfully operating up to 1991, when it began selling a huge stock of accumulated wool on the "free market". As a result, the price of wool fell sharply. By that time, more than 4.6 million bales of unprecedented wool accumulated in the country. Sales of these reserves, as well as newly produced wool has become a problem for modern Australia. In 1996, 730 thousand tons of wool were produced, but the prices for it dropped by 57% compared with the level of 1988-1989.
If the Australian wool had a sales market from the beginning of the 19th century, there was no such market for meat for many years. Therefore, old and unnecessary sheep scored on skins and fat. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the invention of meat freezing technologies in 1879 made it possible to establish exports of Australian lamb to England. Successful development of trade stimulated the removal of new breeds of sheep, which gave meat better quality compared to merino, but somewhat worse wool. In 1996-1997, 583 thousand taranins were produced in Australia, of which 205 thousand went to export. Over the past decade, exports of live sheep have been established, which were scored after delivery to the country of destination. Mostly, this product acquired Muslim countries of the Middle East. In total in 1996-1997, more than 5.2 million sheep were exported from Australia.
Since there are no major predators in Australia, except for Dingo, the breeding of cattle in the colonial period reached significant scale, especially in dry and remote areas where it was aged sheep-flower. However, the development of this industry was constrained due to the inability to establish exports of products and the limited domestic market. "Golden Fever" in Victoria in the 1850s attracted thousands of people. There was a significant market for the sale of beef, which marked the beginning of the development of commercial meat animal husbandry. However, only after 1890, when the Australian beef ice cream began to flow into the English market, the further development of this industry was guaranteed. By that time, the harder part of the mainland was mastered, which is now used for grazing cattle, and the total livestock has reached about 10 million.
In 1997, there were 23.5 million heads of cattle of meat breeds. The production of beef and veal amounted to 1.8 million tons, of which 42% were sent for export. The discovery of the Japanese market was of great importance for the extension of exports of Australian beef. As in the sheep, during these years, exports of live cattle - more than 860 thousand heads in 1996-1997 increased significantly.
Australia's dairy farms are concentrated on the southeastern coast, where many precipitation falls out or irrigation; The most important areas of development of this industry are the southern coast of Victoria, the Valley of Murree near Echuk and the border area between Queensland and the new South Wales. In 1997, there were 3.1 million milk cattle heads. The number of this livestock has decreased since the early 1960s, but thanks to the improvement of its composition and quality of pastures, as well as improving the methods of farming, the volume of dairy products has not decreased. In the 1990s, the population of dairy livestock increased again. This trend is partly due to the successful adaptation of the industry to the consignment in the world market after in the mid-1980s, the decision was made that the prices for dairy products must be complied with the world. At present, approximately half of the Australian dairy products are exported (mainly in the countries of the Middle East and Asia) in the form of cheese, dry milk, oil and casein. In the past, the production of dairy products depended on state subsidies, now this industry is becoming more independent.
Other livestock industries, such as pig breeding, poultry and beekeeping, are focused mainly on the domestic market, and only some products go to export.
The cultivation of grain crops is limited mainly to the eastern and southeast peripheral areas of Australia, a lesser extent developed in the south-west of Western Australia and in Tasmania. After 1950, when 8 million hectares were sown, there was a significant increase in the sowing areas up to a record level - 22 million hectares in 1984. Subsequently, unfavorable climatic and economic factors led to a reduction in sown areas to 17 million hectares in 1991, but then again began to expand - until 19.4 million hectares in 1994.
For the cultivation of grain crops and the functioning of many pastures, fertilizers are required. In 1995-1996, they were used on an area of \u200b\u200b28.4 million hectares. Irrigation plays an increasingly important role for Australian farms. In 1994, the total area of \u200b\u200birrigated land was 2.4 million hectares. Most of these lands were concentrated in the Murree pool - Darling. In 1995-1996, the total cost of crop production amounted to 14.7 billion Australia. Dollage The greatest importance among grain crops has wheat, grown in areas with an average annual precipitation of 380-500 mm. It has more than half of all sowing areas. Mostly it is a winter culture that is very sensitive to droughts. In particular, in 1994-1995, when drought was struck by the new South Wales, Victoria and Queensland, wheat fell reduced to 9 million tons, and in two years in 1996-1997 it increased almost three times and reached 23.7 million. t.
Barley and Oats - important winter grain crops. They are used as feed for livestock, and also sown on the zhinyry - such sites often serve as pastures. Australia is one of the world's leading exporters; Its fee in 1995-1996 amounted to 1.9 million tons on an area of \u200b\u200b1.1 million hectares. South Australia is leading in the production of barley. Part of the crop of this culture goes to the malt, the rest is a cattle or exported. In 1995-1996, 5.8 million tons of barley on an area of \u200b\u200b3.1 million hectares were collected. Among other grain crops are distinguished corn (used mainly on the forage), sorghum (grown on grain and on a forage), triticale (rye and wheat hybrid), and from oilseeds - earthwood, sunflower, safflower, rape and soy. In the 1990s, Colan's crops expanded.
The coolest part (98%) rice is grown on irrigated lands along the Murray and Marrambiji Rivers (at the bottom of the valley) in the south of the new South Wales. Rice crops in Queensland are expanding. In 1996-1997, rice was collected 1.4 million tons on the area of \u200b\u200b164 thousand hectares.
The cultivation of sugar cane is limited by coastal areas in the east of Queensland and in the north of the new South Wales. In 1995-1996, 4.9 million tons of sugar were produced, and its maintenance was exported. Cotton crops in Australia are confined mainly to irrigated lands. The main districts of cotton growing are the valleys of the rivers, Guidir and Makintyre in the new South Wales and Berk County. In 1995-1996, 430 thousand tons of cotton fiber were produced (of which 70% went to export). Australia satisfies its needs in short and medium fiber cotton, but is forced to import long-fiber cotton.
Vegetable growing ensures the needs of Australia, and over the past decade of the area under vegetables increased, and the range of these crops has expanded. In 1995-1996, the crops of vegetables occupied 130 thousand hectares. Although most of them, intended for consumption in a fresh form, is still grown in small intensively cultivated suburban farms, the development of transport contributed to the formation of vegetable farms in areas with the most appropriate soils and the low cost of land. The bulk of vegetables for canning and freezing is produced in irrigated areas.
In Australia, the demand for fruits and grapes is satisfied with excess, but you have to import nuts and olives. In terms of productivity, irrigated land on the valleys of Murray and Marrambiji rivers, supplying grapes, citrus and diverse bone cultures, such as peaches, cherries and apricots, are most distinguished. The main objects of export of fruit growing are raisins, oranges, pears and apples. Tropical fruits such as pineapples, bananas, papaya, mango, macadam and granadilla are grown in the strip between Kofs Harbor (New South Wales) and Cairns (Queensland) on the east coast of the country.
Grapes are used in winemaking and for consumption in dried and fresh form. In 1995-1996, the vineyards occupied an area of \u200b\u200b80 thousand hectares. In recent years, wine-making products have increased and a significant part of it (more than 25%) exported. Australian wines are distinguished by a large variety. In 1994, 780 wine plants operated in the country. However, 80% of all products accounted for four largest wine companies.
Forestry. Australia is poorly provided with good wood. Only 20% of the country's area is covered with indigenous forests, with 72% of forests on state lands, the rest - on private. Almost three quarters of forests are occupied by eucalyptus stands. Few breeds are suitable for making wood mass, exceptions are rowan in plasterland and curry in Western Australia. Local types of soft wood have particularly narrow use. To reduce the deficit, exotic trees were landing with soft wood, mainly a majestic New Zealand Pine, on an area of \u200b\u200babout 1 million hectares. However, Australia has to import wood, mainly soft breeds, from Canada and the United States. In turn, Australia exports timber prepared in Tasmania and the new South Wales.
Fisheries. Fisheries are timed mainly to the southern and eastern parts of the shelf. In the 1990s, it has greatly expanded, and a significant part of the catch was exported - predominantly lobs and shrimps in Japan, Xiangan (Hong Kong) and Taiwan. The total cost of exported seafood in 1995-1996 exceeded 1 billion Avtral. Dollah. In the same year, 214 thousand tons of seafood were produced, of which the most important types of fish were a blue tuna, Australian salmon, kefal and shark, and from crustaceans - shrimps and lobs. The mining of shrimps was 27.5 thousand tons, and the lobster - 15.6 thousand tons of shrimp is carried out by trawlers in the Bay of Carpenaria, and lobsters catch in many areas along the southern coast of Australia. Oysters and scallops fishery are focused mainly on the domestic market.
Since the beginning of the 1980s, aquaculture began to expand, which now is one of the rapidly developing industries of fisheries. Currently, the main objects of this industry are oysters, tuna, salmon, shrimp and scallops. The cost of its products in 1995-1996 amounted to 338 million Australia. Doll, or twice as much as six years ago. The pearl's once succeeded fisheries almost ceased, but the farms for the breeding of artificial pearls were founded in several (at least ten) places of the northern coast and give a considerable income. Rivers and streams in the Mountains of Eastern Australia provide favorable opportunities for fishing trout.
Australia manufacturing industry
The development of the manufacturing industry in Australia has greatly contributed to the reduction of imports during the Second World War. The expansion of this industry continued in the 1950s and 1960s, and employment has increased by 70%. In the 1970s, employment growth in the manufacturing industry slowed down, and this trend remains today. Nevertheless, the share of the manufacturing industry now accounts for approx. 14% of GDP, i.e. Much less than 20 years ago, when this industry gave 20% of GDP. In the late 1970s, approximately 1.2 million people were employed in the manufacturing industry, and in 1996 - approx. 925 thousand people, or 13% of the amateur population.
Mining industry Australia
Over the past 40 years, mining in Australia has expanded, and now this country is a major supplier of mineral raw materials into the world market. Australia is ahead of other countries for the production of boxites, diamonds, lead and zircon and the export of coal, iron ore, bauxite, lead, diamonds and zinc. Australia ranks second in the world in the export of bauxite and uranium and third place in exporting gold and aluminum. The largest industrial industry is coal, the share of stone coal accounts for 10% of Australian exports. In general, in 1995-1996, the extractive industry gave 4% of the Australian GDP, and the products of this industry accounted for 22% of exports. In addition to stone coal, iron ore, oil, copper, zinc ores and uranium were exported from Australia.
In the past, the most important mineral resource was gold. In 1851-1865, the deposits in the states of Victoria and the new South Wales, where gold was found for the first time, there were 70.8 tons of this noble metal annually. Later, the gold deposit was opened in Queensland, Northern Territories and Western Australia. Currently, gold is mined in many parts of the country, but mainly in Western Australia. In total, in 1995-1996, 264 tons of gold were produced, and 78% - in Western Australia, where the rich field of the Calgohli stands out.
From 1950, the intelligence of minerals has expanded. In the 1960s, important discoveries were made, especially in the territory of the Precambrian shield of Western Australia and in sedimentary basins. As a result, for the first time since the Gold Fever of the 1850s, a giant boom in the mining industry occurred. Financing this campaign was carried out at the expense of the capital of Japan, the United States and, as well as the Australian itself. The most active activity turned in Western Australia, especially on the extraction of iron ore.
At one time, the export of iron ore was banned, as it was believed that its reserves in the country are limited. This policy was radically changed after in 1964 huge deposits of this ore in the area of \u200b\u200bPilbara in Western Australia were opened. In 1995-1996, 137.3 million tons of iron ore were produced in Australia, 92% of them are for export. The main deposits are located in Western Australia - Hammersley Mountains, Newman and Goldsuerti. Other deposits - Peak Tallaring, Kulanuk and Cultobing.
Australia has extensive bauxite reserves - the main raw materials for the production of aluminum, and from 1985 this country produced at least 40% of the global bouxite products. Bauxites were first discovered in 1952 on the GRU peninsula (Northern Territory), and in 1955 in Waip (Queensland). There are also deposits in Western Australia - in the Darling Ridge southeast of Perth and the Mitchell Plateau in the Kimberley area; In all other than the latter, the development has begun. In 1995-1996, 50.7 million tons of bauxite were produced. Part of the bauxite goes to the production of alumina, and the other part is processed into aluminum. Boxites from the Wepa deposit are sent to Gladstone, where it is produced by Hindze. The same processing enterprises operate in the gov (northern territory); Quina and Pindjarre (Western Australia) and Bell-Bee (Tasmania). In 1995-1996 in Australia, the production of alumina amounted to 13.3 million tons, its most exported. At the same time, 1.3 million tons of aluminum were developed at Australia's enterprises by electrolysis.
Coal deposits near Newcastle were operated from 1800, and coal was one of the first objects of Australian exports. Anthracite and half-patocyte coals are rare, but the reserves of other types of coal are large. The main deposits of bituminous (coking and steam) coals are located in the Bowan pools (in Queensland) and Sydney (in the new South Wales); Some layers reach a capacity of more than 18 m and can be developed in an open way (especially in the Bowen pool). It is such coals, in particular from the Queensland deposits located near Collinsville, Mura, Blair Atol and Bridgewater, revived Australia's coal industry. Japan, the main importer of Australian coal, actively invested coal mining in the Bowen pool, where several new mines were opened. In 1995-1996, 194 million tons of coal were produced in Australia (approximately half in Queensland and the same in the new South Wales), 140 million tons of coal were exported (43% in Japan, 13% in Korea and 7% for Taiwan) . Currently, Australia is a leading supplier of coal to the global market.
Coking coal for ferrous metallurgy is mined from deposits near Newcastle and Wollongong. Semi-bituminous coals are developed in the areas of Ipsuch and Callay in Queensland, Lee Creek in South Australia and Fingal in Tasmania. The main field of Western Australia is located in Collie 320 km south of Perth. In the Valley of Latrobe in Victoria, large deposits of brown coal are operating: three main plates are developed by a highly mechanized open way; Most of the coal is used on local thermal power plants for energy supply to South Victoria. Other deposits of brown coal are located west of Melbourne - in English and Bakus-Marsh. Large deposits of Kingston brown coal at the south-east of South Australia, Esperance in Western Australia and Raywill in Tasmania were found.
Since the coal industry has an extremely important economic importance, including for the production of electricity, the organization of exports and decisions of employment problems, Australia has long counteracting the implementation of the UN resolution adopted at the Climate Change Conference in Kyoto in December 1997. In the end, it agreed to significantly reduce to 2010 Carbon-containing gas emissions.
The oil field intelligence program, which began in the 1950s, with the support of the state, contributed to a clear allocation of at least 20 sedimentation basins; Of these, oil is now produced in nine. The most important deposits are located in areas of plasterland (Victoria), Karnarvon (Western Australia), Bonaparte (Northern Territory and Western Australia) and Cooper-Eromanga (South Australia and Queensland). In 1995-1996, 30 billion liters of oil was mined, incl. Almost half of the plaster pool. Australia almost reached the level of self-sufficiency of petroleum products, exports of crude oil and condensate in 1994-1995 amounted to 35 million liters, and imports - 77 million l, which is much less than the level of local production.
Natural gas, first discovered in the Roma area in Queensland in 1904, right up to 1961 had only local importance. In 1995-1996, almost 30 billion cubic meters were produced in Australia. M gas, mainly from the fields of the Plasterland and Shelf from the North-West Coast, and the last district had over half and he was exported. All the capital of states and many other cities are connected by pipelines with gas fields. Brisbane receives gas from the Roma-Surat deposits; Sydney, Canberra and Adelaide - from the Cooper-Eromanga pool; Melbourne - from the shelf of plaster; Perth - from the deposits of Dongara Mandara and Shelf from the north-west coast; Darwin - Amadius Basin Deposits.
Australia gradually expands the extraction of liquefied petroleum gas. In 1995-1996, 3.6 billion liters of this gas were produced, including 62% of the fields in the Bass Strait and 25% of the Cooper Basin.
Australia is the main manufacturer and lead, which are often found along with. The most important area of \u200b\u200bthe extraction of these metals is Mount Isa - Cloncarre in Western Queensland, from there I Ruda enters the processing enterprises in Mount Isy and Townsville. Older, but still significant areas of production of these metals - Zian-Dandas in Tasmania (from 1882) and Broken Hill in the West of the New South Wales (from 1883). In terms of metal maintenance in 1995-1996, 774 thousand tons of lead ore were produced. In the same year, 1.3 million tons of zinc were produced. Mount Isiza district - Clonucarre is also an essential focus. This metal for the first time began to extract in the Kapanda area - Barra in South Australia in the 1840s. In 1991, 1,3 million tons of copper were produced in Australia in terms of copper concentrate.
Australia has become the main manufacturer after this metal was discovered in 1966 in Cambalde, south of the gold-bearing district of Calgohli in Western Australia. In 1991, 65.4 thousand tons of nickel was produced. After the discovery of diamond deposits in the northeast of Western Australia in 1979, Australia became their main manufacturer. Diamond mining at the Rudnik Argail began in 1983, and now he is considered one of the world's largest. The best part of the mined diamonds has an industrial value. In 1995-1996, Australia exported almost 7,200 kg of diamonds. There is also a significant number of opals and sapphires. At the Coober Pedy deposits, Andamuk and Mintaby in South Australia, the most part of the precious opals in the world is mined; In the new South Wales there are fields of Layning Ridge and White Clifs. Sapphires are mined near Glen Innens and Inverell in the new South Wales and in Anaki in Queensland.
Australia has most of the world reserves of rutile, zircon and thorium contained in the sands along the east coast of the country between the Stradmbroge Island (Queensland) and the city of Byron Bay (New South Wales) and on the coast of Western Australia in Capele. In 1995-1996, 2.5 million tons of sands containing these minerals were produced. The extraction of manganese ore is much higher than the needs of the country, and the harder part of all products is exported. The entire manganese comes from the island of Greot-Island in the Bay of Carpenaria. Australia in the past was the main supplier of tungsten, and so far a significant part of its prey goes to export. Tungsten mines are located in the northeast of Tasmania and on King Island.
Australia owns 30% of world reserves of cheap uranium raw materials. The Laborist Government who was in power, guided by security reasons, limited uranium production by two mines. Development of deposits Ranger-Nabarlek near Jabiru on the northern territory began in 1979, and the Olympic Dame field in South Australia in 1988. In 1995-1996, 3.2 thousand tons were mined in the first area, and in the second - 1.85 thousand. t. The coalition government, which came to power in 1996, has canceled restrictions on the extraction of uranium. The approval of the government to open the Jabiluk mine on the Northern Territory and it is planned to operate the Beverly deposit in South Australia, although both projects meet opposition by environmental organizations.
Salt is made by evaporation of seawater, as well as water salted lakes. Four large installations of this kind, located in Western Australia (Dampier, Lake Mac-Loud, Port Hedland and Shark Bay) give almost 80% of salt produced in the country. It is exported to Japan to Japan, which is used in the chemical industry. For the domestic market, the salt is manufactured in small enterprises located mainly in South Australia, Victoria and Queensland.
Foreign trade in Australia
Australia always depended on the overseas markets, where the products of her ranch, farms, mines and - from recent PAR - manufacturing enterprises have come true. In 1996-1997, the cost of exports amounted to almost 79 billion Australia. dollars, including finished products - 61.4%, mineral raw materials - 22.7% and agricultural products - 13.6%. In the same year, 75% of the exports of Australia went to the countries of the Asia-Tikhokean basin. The main buyer of the Australian goods was Japan (19% of the export value), then followed South Korea (9%), New Zealand (8%), USA (7%), Taiwan (4.6%), China (4.5%) , Singapore (4.3%), Indonesia (4.2%) and Sianggan (Hong Kong) (3.9%), and the share of Great Britain accounted for only 3%.
The trade balance of Australia in 1995-1996 as a whole was characterized by a minor deficit: exports - 78.885 billion Avtral. Dol., Import - 78.997 billion Australia. Dolla. The main imports of imports were computers, aircraft, cars, chemical products (including oil), telecommunication equipment, medicines, clothing, shoes and paper. Australia's trade balance with different countries was different. For example, there was an active balance balance with Japan (export of 15.3 billion Avtral. Dollars, and imports - 10.2 billion Avtral. Dollars), and a large deficit with the United States (exports of 5.5 billion Avtral. Dol , and imports - 17.6 billion Australia. dollars). In addition, the active balance of the balance with South Korea, New Zealand, Senthan (Hong Kong), Indonesia, Iran and South Africa and significant deficits in trade with the UK, and are noted.
The economic ties of Australia and the United States attract special attention. Australia is considered an active US ally, but on the line of foreign trade, the balance is not in favor of Australia - in the same way as the last (which in turn is inferior to Australia) remains in trade between the United States and Japan). Australia and the United States are competitors in the export of some products, such as grain. State subsidies provided by American farmers who produce export products are considered in Australia as a manifestation of dishonest competition.
Despite the relatively balanced indicators of foreign trade, Australia has a problem of chronic shortage of its overall international financial balance. This can be explained at the expense of consecutive deficits resulting from non-trade factors - such as payment of interest on foreign loans, payment of dividends to foreign investors, insurance costs and freight courts. In 1996-1997 fiscal year, the "deficit of the current balance of payments" Australia reached 17.5 billion Australia. dollars, or 3.4% of GDP, which is much less than the level of 1994-1995, when it was 27.5 billion Australia. dollars, or 6% of GDP.
In 1996-1997 fiscal year, the entire foreign debt of Australia was estimated at 288 billion Australia. Doll. Taking into account the cost of Australian investments abroad (except for shares), the net foreign debt of Australia was 204 billion Australia. Dol. The total international investment position of the country can be established by adding this external debt with pure investments in the form of shares. In 1996-1997, Australia's gross liabilities on foreign stocks amounted to 217 billion Australia. dollars, and a pure obligation on foreign stocks - 105 billion Australian. Doll. In general, the international investment position of Australia, taking into account the debt and shares, was characterized by a deficit of 309 billion Australia. Doll.
The Australian economy has always dependent on foreign investment. With a permanent market orientation of the government, a healthy economy and large-scale development projects did not stop the influx of foreign capital. In 1996-1997 fiscal year, the total volume of foreign investment amounted to 217 billion Australia. dollars, and the volume of Australian investments abroad - 173 billion Australia. dollars in general approx. 29% of the shares of Australian companies belonged to foreigners, and in private trading companies this figure reached 44%. Particularly large part of foreign capital in the mining industry.
For 20 century Australia tried to protect its industry by introducing duties to imported goods, while trying to establish free exports of goods. Since the beginning of the 1970s, customs duties have declined sharply, which significantly affected the production and employment in a number of industries, for example, in the manufacturing industry - in the production of cars, clothing and shoes. As a result of such a policy, the economy of Australia has become more competitive, and the share of finished products has significantly increased in exports. Due to the more sustainable structure of the economy, Australia, by the end of 1998, was able to overcome strong shocks that broke out in the Asia-Pacific region. Australia strengthened its position in the so-called. Carnis group of trading partners and in Asia-Pacific economic cooperation, defending the principle of free trade. In the late 1990s, the Australian government, concerned about the high unemployment and the reluctance of other Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation partners to continue the policy of reducing customs duties, in itself introduced a moratorium on further reduction of duties until 2004.
Monetary circulation and banking. In Australia, since 1966, a decimal monetary system was adopted. The Australian dollar is produced by the Australian Reserve Bank, which regulates interest rates, monitors the financial system. In recent years, the regulation of the banking sector has gradually weakened. For example, since 1983, foreign banks were allowed to carry out operations in Australia, and the fundamental differences between different types of banks and between banks and other financial organizations, such as life insurance companies, construction companies and pension funds, were gradually reduced or erased. As of June 1996, 50 Australian and foreign banks have been operating in the country who have had more than 6.5 thousand offices. The four of the largest Australian banks are the National Bank of Australia, the Union Bank of Australia, Westpac and Australian Banking Corporation and the New Zealand Banking Group - control more than half of all bank assets. The merger of these four large banks is prohibited by the state, which seeks to ensure the competitiveness of the banking sector.
State Finance of Australia
Despite the federal principle of the state device, thanks to which the States initially received a substantial financial independence, the dominant factor in the system of state finance of Australia is the federal government. In 1995-1996, the fiscal year, for example, the National Government increased by 73% revenue in the public sector, and its own expenses (excluding subsidies to other government agencies) were approx. 55% of the total consumption of the public sector. The federal budget project for 1998-1999 fiscal year provides income in the amount of 144.3 billion Australia. Doll, of which 2.5% fall on tax revenues, and costs of 141.6 billion Australia. dollars, which will be a budgetary surplus of 2.7 billion Australia. dollars. The main directions of budget expenditures are social insurance and social assistance (38% of the total amount of expenses), healthcare (16%), defense (7%) and education (4%).
The progress provided for by the draft budget must complete the 7-year period of the budget deficit, which came after for 4 years in a row (from 1987-1988 to 1990-1991), the Labor Government managed to achieve a positive budget balance. It is assumed that in the foreseeable future the country will have a deficit budget. As a result of this, for four years, the amount of domestic public debt (in the statistics of which indicators of state business enterprises) should be reduced to zero levels. For comparison: in 1995-1996 fiscal year, the value of the public debt reached a peak and amounted to 95.8 billion Avtral. dollars, or 19.5% of GDP. General revenues of state and territories governments in 1995-1996 amounted to 74.4 billion Australia. Doll. About 46% of this amount was obtained in the form of subsidies of the federal government, the rest was obtained in the form of taxes on the wage fund, on property, financial operations and turnover tax. The main items of state and territorial government expenditures are education (31% of expenses), health care (20%), repayment of the public debt (15%), police and security services (9%).
Taxation system. In the tax system, income tax is most important. Although in general the level of taxes in Australia is significantly lower than in other developed industrial countries, income tax rates are quite high. In 1995-1996, the share of income tax had more than 60% of taxes collected at all levels (at the same time, 40% accomplished on the share of income tax from individuals, and the share of legal entities - 13%). Income income from individuals is calculated by a progressive scale, starting with a minimum rate of 20% charged from income that exceed the non-taxable annual income of 5.4 thousand Australia. dollars, and up to the maximum rate of 47% from income exceeding 50 thousand Austral. dollars (data as of 1997-1998). Over the past decades, a smooth decrease in the maximum income tax rate, which was previously 60%, occurred.
The property and real estate tax is relatively small and is generally 5% of total tax deductions, in addition, there is no tax on inheritable property (the inheritance tax was canceled in the 1970s). Tax on goods and services in 1995-1996 was approx. 23% of total tax revenues, which are slightly less compared to other industrialized countries, but the taxing mechanism in this area is quite complicated. The federal government collects a tax with wholesale turnover at various rates (12% - on some goods, 22% - to others and 32% - on "luxury items"). There are also 37% wholesaler of turnover on beer and alcoholic beverages, 41% wine tax and 45% tax on expensive cars. Not taxable food, clothing, building materials, books, magazines and newspapers, medicines. In addition, the federal excise tax is charged and some agricultural products. Until 1997, taxes and excise taxes on gasoline, alcoholic beverages and tobacco products were charged, which were legally interpreted as taxes on the franchise and working capital. In August 1997, the High Court recognized these taxes by unconstitutional and violating state monopoly on excise taxes, so measures have hurked for the transfer of these taxes to the state category that enter the state budgets.
In 1985, the laborist government was supported by the idea of \u200b\u200bintroducing a simple and comprehensive consumption tax, but then he had to withdraw this project under pressure from the supporters of a social security system and trade unions that fear the regressive effect of the new tax mechanism. The proposal to introduce a single tax on goods and services (NTU) was included in the Liberal National Opposition Radical Platform in the 1993 elections, but the obvious unpopularity of this proposal, according to the general recognition, was the cause of the defeat of the opposition coalition. However, in 1996, the same opposition coalition led by John Howard defeated Laborians even if there was the same unpopular thesis in its program to introduce NTU. At the same time, the Government of Howard promised that in the case of his re-election in 1998 it would not only reduce the income tax rate (which was to be the basis of the budget surplus planned by the Government), but at the same time Introduces 10% NTU to all goods and services (except institutions Health, education and kindergartens). With this program of tax reform, the Government of Howard won the election. However, the fate of the NTU introduction project is still unclear, since the government does not have a majority in the Senate. It is likely that if food will also be excluded from the taxable base, the NTU will be supported by senators from small parties and enters into operation in 2000.
Distribution of tax revenues of Australia
The states formed in 1901 the Australian Union became not only self-financing, but also self-governing formations. As the federal government strengthened and expand its participation in the development and holding of state financial policy (in 1908, the National Pension Program was adopted), it began to collect taxes, which were previously the prerogative of state governments (land tax, funeral duty, income tax and etc.), and compete with states in the field of crediting capital construction.
At the dawn of the existence of the Union, a number of once the most important incremental articles of the state budgets - the tax on enterprises of utilities, public transport and sold out of the land of the British crown - gradually lost economic significance. On the other hand, the constitutional translation of "customs and excise payments" in the management of the federal government has limited the possibilities of collecting the taxes in these regions. Although the translation of these payments to the federal level was the goal of stimulating internal trade between states and establishing uniform import tariffs, this gave a impetus for the emergence of the "vertical budget imbalance", in which the magnitude of the income of the federal government consistently exceeds its real expenditure and, accordingly, the states are real Consume significantly more means than they are able to get in the form of taxes. As for the "excise payments", the High Court insisted on a fairly broad of their interpretation, which deprived the state budgets of many potential sources of income in the form of a tax of turnover, consumption tax, penalties and retained the states rather narrow taxable base.
During the 1920s, the States have experienced difficulties in fulfilling their obligations to repay debts and interest payments for previously taken loans, as a result of which they encountered budget deficit. In 1927, a special mechanism was developed for the coordination of government loans and eliminating competition between the federal center and the states in the field of borrowing in the framework of the financial agreement between the States and the federal government, according to which the Board of Loans was formed. All government loans (with the exception of defense) should now be made in agreement with the Board of Loans, which was part of one representative from each state and central government. The federal government received two advisory voices in the Council and one decisive, so that to make favorable decisions, the government was required to enlist the support of two more states. But even without these additional votes, the financial superiority of the federal government in the other areas of the economy allowed him to consistently provide decisive influence on the decision of the Board of Loans. In 1928, the financial agreement received a constitutional justification on the referendum, approved the inclusion in the Constitution of Article 105a.
Finally, when in the 1940s federal government managed to monopolize income tax collection, its financial power received a solid foundation. In the early 1940s, the income tax was the most important source of replenishment of the state budget, while income taxes in different states differed significantly. During World War II, the federal government, formally, in order to find effective and fair ways to increase the budget revenue, offered states to refuse to charge direct taxes for the period of the war (in exchange for federal compensation payments) so that all tax rates can be established throughout the country . But the premieres of the states did not agree with this proposal, and then in 1941 the Federal Parliament adopted the law obliging States to accept a new scheme. As a result, the States received the right to compensatory transfers for missed income, but only on the condition so that they do not have their own income tax. A number of states challenged the law on a single tax, but in 1942 the High Court supported him. In 1946, the Federal Parliament again adopted the same law to preserve a single tax and in peacetime (in 1957 this law was also supported by a high court). At the same time, the federal government did not have legal grounds to prevent the introduction of local income taxes in the states. However, the practical importance of the new legislation was that the federal government provided a monopoly on income tax charge, since the introduction of income tax in the state would automatically deprive its federal transfers and could lead to "double taxation" in this state.
Such a tax system finally strengthened the financial base of Australian federalism. Currently, income taxes are charged by the Central Government. The federal budget for 1998-1999 provides for the collection of income taxes in the amount of 99 billion Australia. Dol. - Of these, 76% fall on individuals, 23% on legal ones. Another 15 billion Australian. dollars should go to the budget from the tax from wholesale sales and 14 billion Australia. dollars - from excise payments to petroleum products and so on.
In 1971, a partial elimination of the vertical budget imbalance occurred when the federal government provided the states the right to charge the tax on the wage fund (in exchange for a decrease in the size of the transfer for general needs, although the states immediately increased the tax rates, as a result, the winning from this reform) . The tax on the wage fund became the most important source of revenues to the state budgets, being directly related to the rates of economic growth. However, this tax is considered too burdensome for business, as it slows down the development of investments and employment.
In practice, the vertical budget imbalance is determined by the federal center, which returns budget funds in the form of transfers (subsidies). The Government of the Union speaks with proposals for the budget project for the next year at the annual conference of the state premieres. The heads of state governments participate in part of the ritual, and partly the opposing forum, making their amendments and conclude special agreements with the government. At various stages of the modern history of the country, the federal center was considered by the states as generous, as a naughty lender, although it must be recognized that the degree of generosity of the Union government invariably depended on the general attitudes of its economic strategy. So, in the first years after the war, budget arrivals due to the growth of tax collecting, served as a powerful financial help to strengthen the federal government. At the same time, the size of compensatory transfers to the states constantly decreased.
The system of vertical budget imbalance has its own supporters. The country has developed a centralized and generally effective income tax collection system, and the powers of the federal center determines the amount of government spending and borrowing, in turn, provide him with the possibility of effective management of the country's economy as a whole. On the other hand, it is expressed that the budget imbalance violates the interdependence between government spending and execution of the budget revenue. According to opponents of the existing system, it is not enough that this imbalance does not contribute to the direct linkage of decisions on state expenses with responsibility for the execution of the revenue of the budget, while the social and financial responsibility of power structures is blurred.
The state governments are in principle to increase the revenues of their budgets at the expense of local taxes. In the past, the Central Government provided the states the opportunity - in particular in 1952 and 1977 - to take on some functions to collect income taxes. However, the states did not want to take advantage of the resulting authority. With increasing some local payments and taxes are simultaneously declining, otherwise other taxes are canceled. Thus, in most states, the inheritance tax is canceled, the privileges of land tax have been introduced, and in 1977 none of the States took advantage of the possibility of introducing an income tax allowance.
The Government of Howard promised that all revenues received from the introduction of NTU will be redistributed in favor of the States. This measure should provide states more precisely predicted budget revenues, although it is unlikely to help reduce the vertical budget imbalance.
In the past, most of the federal subsidies were distributed in the form of "unrelated" payments "for common needs" (in the 1990s they are called financial assistance subsidies), which allowed state administrations to dispose of allocated funds at their own discretion. Article 96 of the Constitution states that the federal government "can provide financial assistance to any state under the conditions that the Federal Parliament considers acceptable". And according to the Decree of the High Court, the Federal Center, when allocating the states of financial assistance under certain conditions, has the right to identify among these conditions and those that may relate to powerful powers, on the constitution not transferred to the federal center.
The first legislation of the 1940s on the distribution of tax collecting powers was assumed that compensation for the federal government of income taxes collected in the States should be carried out in the form of "unrelated" payments, so that the states can dispose of them as freely as they have disposed of receipts from collecting local income taxes. Since the late 1940s, however, the federal government has repeatedly increased the share of "related" (ie, targeted) payments that are now about half of all federal transfers.
Ten years after the formation of the Australian Union, the federal government has become a reliable source of financial assistance to the states that have previously experienced serious financial difficulties. In 1933, when the practice of issuing government subsidies is firmly rooted, the central government has created a permanent special body - the subsidy commission - to determine the size and form of financial assistance to the states
Australia is a federal state that is part of the Commonwealth, headed by Great Britain. The Australian Union includes six states; New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Queensland, Western Australia and Tasmania, as well as two territories - the northern territory and territory of the capital.
The country is located in the southern hemisphere and occupies the territory of the entire Australian continent and the islands adjacent to it (about. Tasmania, King, Kangaroo. Flinders, Barrow, etc.). Australia Square 7.7 million square meters. km, population - 18.2 million people. Capital - Canberra. State language - English. Most of the population professes Christianity.
Australia is among the economically developed countries of the world, but its economy is mainly inherent raw material orientation. In the international division of Australia, a leading role in the production and export of wheat, meat, sugar, wool, various types of mineral raw materials (bauxite, polymetals, iron ore, coal, etc.).
Geographical position. A distinctive feature of the geographical position of Australia is a significant distance from other continents. The country is surrounded from all sides by the waters of the World Ocean, its northern and eastern shores is washes by the Pacific Ocean, Western and South Indian.
Population. The main core of the Australian population is Angloavalities (descendants of immigrants from the UK and Ireland) and immigrants from different countries of the world. Australian aborigines form less than 1% of the country's population .. The average population density of Australia is 2 people per 1 square meter. km. Most of the population (over 2/3 of the country's inhabitants) focused on the eastern and southeastern coast, favorable in natural attitude (here the density in separate places reaches 10-50 people per square meters. Km). The rest of the territory settled weakly.
Australia is one of the most urbanized countries of the world: more than 85% of its population are citizens. The largest cities are Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide, Perth, Newcastle. Almost all of them are ports.
Natural conditions. Australia relief is predominantly plain. Mountains occupy less than 5% of this mainland. The waterprooper stretching along his eastern outskirts (the highest point - Mount Kosyushko - 2230 m) does not represent a difficult obstacle to economic development. The climate for most of the territory of Australia is unfavorable for agriculture. A sufficient precipitation (500 mm per year) falls only on an elevated Eastern and Southeast Painting Paints. The fields of extensive deserts (they occupy 2/5 squares of the country) Central and Western Australia have insufficient moisturizing and can be used only as pastures for sheep.
The river network is poorly developed. The only multi-water river Murray with the influx of Darling.
Farm. Among industry industries, the most important for the Australian economy has a mining, metallurgical and food industry. Products of these industries are not only widely used within the country, but in large quantities goes to export. Australia occupies a prominent place in the world by reserves and mining bauxite, iron, lead, zinc, copper, manganese, tungsten and uranium ores, stone coal. Color and ferrous metallurgy are closely connected with the mining industry, the main industries of which are the aluminum industry, copper, tin, lead and zinc, special steels and alloys.
The leading sectors of the food industry - meat, dairy, flourish, sugar, fruit and vegetable - recycle local agricultural raw materials. Enterprises of these industries are mainly located in the port cities in the south-east of the country (Melbourne, Sydney, Newcastle, Adelaide).
Mechanical engineering (production of cargo and passenger cars, agricultural machinery, electrical equipment, various devices, etc.), oil refining, chemical (production of nitrogen and phosphate fertilizers, plastics and chemical fibers, etc.) and light (shoes, fabric and knitwear) Industry in Mostly have a local meaning.
Australia's agriculture has a livestock bias. Leading branches of animal husbandry - sheep and cattle breeding of meat and dairy direction. The country ranks first in the world of sheep, production and export of wool, lamb, beef and veal. Developed horse breeding, camel and poultry farming. In connection with the animal flow of agriculture as a whole in crop production, the cultivation of forage crops is essential (employed up to 49% of Pashny Square).
The main export cultures of Australia - Wheat, sugar cane, cotton. The main range of their cultivation - East and Southeast of the country. The production and export of wheat Australia occupies one of the first places in the world. Important branches of crop production - gardening, viticulture, vegetable growing.
Transport. In the transport of goods, the role (up to half of the cargo turnover) of maritime transport, passengers - automotive and aviation. The length of the railways is small. There is almost no indoor water transport.
The main articles of export - mineral raw materials (iron ore, coal, bauxite, etc.) and agricultural products (wool, wheat, meat, sugar). Imports Australia mainly industrial products. Internal differences. Different parts of the territory of Australia differ in the level of development and specialization of the economy.
Four economy areas are distinguished:
1 . Southeast (includes the states of New South Wales, Victoria and Southeast of South Australia, the territory of the Federal Capital) - the country's leading area. At its relatively small territory (20% of the country's area), more than 70% of the population are concentrated, about 80% of manufacturing products, almost half of the mining, more than half of the agriculture, approximately the same length of the railways. Here are the largest centers of Australia - Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide.
2 . Northeast (Queensland's state with the administrative center of Brisbane) is highlighted by the cultivation of sugar cane and tropical fruit crops (bananas, papaya, pineapples, etc.), cattle breeding (half of the country's livestock), meat, sugar, bauxite and alumina, mining Oil.
3 . West Central (covers the states of the southern (except southeast) and Western Australia and the Northern Territory) - the largest in area (half of the country's territory) and the most arid (there are a large sandy desert, the Gibson Desert and the Victoria Large Desert), the least populated (There is a tenth of the country's population) and the economically mastered area of \u200b\u200bthe country. It is highlighted by the mining industry (it takes a leading place in the country for the extraction of gold, iron ore, nickel, copper, uranium, manganese) and agriculture (production of wheat, oats, barley, cotton; extensive meat cattle breeding). Large centers - Perth (Western Australia) and Darwin (Northern Territory).
4 . Tasmania, thanks to an island position, favorable climate (warm, smooth, wet), wealth of hydroresours and minerals (copper, tin, tungsten, zinc, iron ore, stone coal, etc.) - the area of \u200b\u200bdeveloped tourism and agriculture (vegetables, Fruits, dairy animals), hydropower and non-ferrous metallurgy (production of copper, aluminum, zinc, etc.). The main center of the district and the administrative center of Tasmania is Hobart.