Artistic culture of civilizations of the ancient world (except antiquity). The originality of the culture of ancient civilizations. Features of the culture and art of ancient civilizations.

Moscow Aviation Institute

(State Technical University)

UMC "DOMEOM"

ESSAY

in the course "Culturology"

Topic: Culture of ancient civilizations

Performed: student Kiseleva E.A.

Accepted: Associate Professor, Ph.D. Pavlova TP

Introduction 3.

Section 1. Development of science and mythology of ancient Egypt 4

1.1. Development of science of ancient Egypt 4

1.2. Gods and goddess of ancient Egypt 7

Section 2. Sumercial Mythology 11

Section 3. The cult of heroes in the mythology of ancient civilizations 14

Section 4. Culture of Babylonia 16

4.1. Development of material culture of Vabionia 16

4.2. Development of Science of Babylonia 16

4.3. Mythology of Babylonia 19.

4.4. Art Culture of Babylonia 20

Section 5. Antique World of Greece. Life and morals of ancient Greece 23

5.1. Homeric period, or "Dark Century". 23.

5.2. Archaic Greece. 24.

5.3. Socio-political structure of the Archaic Epoch . 25

5.4. Culture of the Archaic Epoch . 27

5.5. Classical Greece. thirty

5.6. The economy of Greece is a classic era. thirty

5.7. Culture of classical Greece. thirty

Section 6. Culture of Ancient Rome 35

6.1. Religion and mythology. Greco-Roman Pantheon of the Gods. 35.

6.2. Roman philosophy. 38.

6.3. Development of natural sciences of ancient Rome. 39.

6.4. Legal science of ancient Rome. 41.

6.5. Historical science of ancient Rome. 43.

6.6. Literature of ancient Rome. 45.

6.7 Theater. 47.

6.8 Music of Ancient Rome. 49.

6.9 Architecture, Fine and Decor.-Applied Art 50

Conclusion 56.

References 57

Appendices 58.

Introduction

What is an ancient world? The following definition is given in the Big Soviet Encyclopedia: "Ancient world - adopted in historiography designation of a period of early-grade societies in the ancient East, in Greece and Rome"

The development of society is inherently connected with the development of culture.

Culture (from lat. Cultura-cultivation, upbringing, education, development, reverence), a historically determined level of development of society and a person, expressed in the types and forms of organizing the lives and activities of people, as well as in the material and spiritual values \u200b\u200bcreated by them. The concept of culture is used to characterize the material and spiritual level of development of certain historical eras, socio-economic formations, specific societies, nationalities and nations, as well as specific areas of activity or life. In a narrower sense, the term "culture" belongs only to the sphere of the spiritual life of people.

Initially, the concept of culture meant the targeted impact of a person in nature (the processing of the Earth, etc.), as well as the upbringing and training of the person himself. Education included not only the development of the ability to follow existing standards and customs, but also to encourage the desire to follow, formed confidence in the ability of culture to satisfy all the needs and requests of a person. In the Late Rime Epoch, along with the ideas transmitted by the basic meaning of the word "culture", originated, and in the Middle Ages received the distribution of a different set of values, which positively estimated the urban strengthening of social life and closer to the newly civilization (from Lat. Civilis - civil, state). The word "culture" became associated rather with signs of personal perfection, primarily religious.

Section 1. Development of science and mythology

Ancient Egypt

1.1. Development of science of ancient Egypt.

Civilization of the ancient Egyptians, which existed in the Nile Valley in IV thousand BC. - IV century BC.

The term "Egypt" (AIGYPTOS) comes from the Phoenician "Hikupta" - a distorted Egyptian "Hakakapta" ("Temple of Ptah"), the names of the ancient Egyptian capital of Memphis. The Egyptians themselves called their country "Kemet" ("Black Earth") in the color of the black soil in the Nile Valley as opposed to the "Red Earth" (desert).

The earliest traces of the conscious activity of a person found in the Nile Valley are Paleolithic chopped from silica and a cornea.

In the era of neolithic (5 thousand to n. E.) More specialized polished guns appear, later - from the 4th thousand to n. e. (Culture Negada II) is used obsidian. With the transition from the hunting economy to cattle breeding, and then the farms are applied the first S.-H. tools - hoes, sickle, etc. The material for their manufacture served a stone, wood, bone; There are more complex in shape, but flattened from the hand of the vessels: the vessels are also dried out of stone (alabaster). From the 4th thousand. He starts to be processed by copper (Guerza culture), the deposits of which were in the eastern desert and on the Sinai Peninsula, a pottery circle appears, the ceramic and weaving production is developing, faience is produced, and from the 3rd thousand and glass. Copper spreads everywhere. From the 2nd thousand. Increasing bronze. The first separate iron products found in Egypt are dating about the middle of the 2nd thousand to N. e.; Only the millennium later iron has become widely applied. Large success reached the Egyptians in the processing of gold and silver, of which they made genuine masterpieces of art.

T. K. Agriculture in Egypt is possible only with artificial irrigation, then the channels and dams begin to be constructed in a dotential era. For polishing fields, a crane was used and later - a water-watering wheel (saccical). Plow appears in the era of the early kingdom.

The main paths of the country's reports took place on the Nile. Big rooks of various forms and destination were built with a diverse era. For intercourse with other countries (Syria, Puntom), sea vessels were used, the sizes of which increased over time. Landsome loads were transported by bloves and sleds. Wheel transport was used only from 18 V. BC e.

For construction, clay and cane served for the construction of ancient Egypt around the history of ancient Egypt. A raw brick was used for the construction of palaces of pharaohs and fortresses. Only temples and royal tips (pyramids) were erected from the stone. In the processing of stone, the Egyptians achieved amazing perfection. Stone blocks fought off the cliffs with wooden wedges, which watered water. Grinding and fitting plates with extreme accuracy were made by sand and copper swells, which was possible with an unlimited cheap labor. For lifting weights, levers, rocking chairs, cranes were used. People served as heavy force, less frequently - bulls.

The needs of irrigation, construction and state administration with a complex system of calculating the supply and land plots led to the development of mathematical and astronomical knowledge that had a purely empirical, applied character, never rising to generalizations and theoretical conclusions, such as in Greece. The annual spills of the Nile, the beginning of which coincided with the ascent over the horizon of the star Sirius, forced to follow the movement of the heavenly bodies, which led to the emergence of astronomy and the emergence, possibly in 4th thousand to n. e., calendar. The year was divided into 3 seasons (spill, harvest, drought) and 12 months. For 30 days, after another 5 days have been added excluding hours and minutes, which gave every 4 years the discrepancy between the Astronomical Year and the calendar. The priests and scribes who have accumulated scientific knowledge and experience during the centuries, were determined using the simplest tools (plumb, line) the position of the planets and stars, grouping the latter in the constellation. For measuring time, solar and water (klepsidra) clock was used. Conceptual primitive maps were compiled, taking into account the distance between settlements and cities plans.

Mathematical papiros that have come down to us, mainly collections of tasks with solutions, prove that the Egyptians have not only introduced a decimal number system for the first time (though without a positional designation), but also knew fractional numbers, but only such that the numerator is a unit. Addition and subtraction were made in the usual way, the multiplication was reduced to addition, and during the division, the number was determined to multiply the divider to obtain a divide. Arithmetic and geometric progressions were known. In the era of the Middle Kingdom, elementary algebraic representations arise, equations with two unknowns are solved. High were the knowledge of the Egyptians and in the field of planimity and especially stereometry: the areas of rectangles, triangles, a circle, the surface and the volume of the simple and truncated pyramids were calculated.

The understanding of the dead, which is associated with the opening of the body, contributed to familiarization with the anatomy and the accumulation of surgical experience. The heart functions were studied, the law of blood circulation was opened, there were some ideas about brain functions. From the period of the ancient kingdom, the specialization of doctors treated diseases and damage to various organs is planned. They produced a trepanitation of the skull, fell into teeth, superimposed surgical tires, for which there were sets of surgical instruments. However, quite rationalistic ideas were intertwined with faith in magic, witchcraft, spells.

Mummification, manufacture of incense, drugs, paints, etc., as well as the experience gained during the release of glass and faience, favored the development of chemistry. For staining glass vessels used as an impurities of the manganese, cobalt, zinc oxide.

Trade, and then military expeditions sent from the period of the ancient kingdom to Syria and on the Nile in Kush and to the Equatorial areas of Africa, in the Red Sea in Punt, led to the accumulation and expansion of geographical knowledge. The ideas about the shag of the Egyptian land, however, did not have.

As far as known, historical works in Egypt to the era of Hellenism was not created. Events were recorded only in weather chronicles and then they were then reduced to the canons. Annals of the campaigns of individual pharaohs were carried out or a relationship was compiled with the description of their victories.

The knowledge of the Egyptians in various fields had a significant impact on the development of antique and, therefore, European sciences. The Greeks always looked at Egypt, as the country of ancient wisdom and considered the Egyptians with their teachers.

1.2. Gods and goddess of ancient Egypt

Among the Egyptian myths were central to the main cycles: the creation of the world, the punishment of mankind for sins, the struggle of the Sun of the RA with the forces of the darkness in the image of the serpent of the apote, the death and resurrection of Osiris and others. Creating the Universe most often attributed to RA rising from the lotus bud, which appeared In an eminent water chaos (NUNE). According to the ideas of the Egyptians, the first gods came from the mouth, and people had arms from his tears.

According to another version of the myth, land and people, God-potter Ptah (or Khnum) crashed. The cycle of myths about the punishment of people is very different from the Babylonian and biblical. Instead of a flood in the Egyptian myths of the Republic of Armenia, angry with people who stopped obeying the gods, sends their daughter to the land of Htor's daughter in the image of a lioness. She destroys people and only hardly manage to stop her to stop and save the rest of humanity. The red thread through these myths is the idea of \u200b\u200bomniplicating gods capable of carawing or squeeze with milles at their discretion.

The religion of the ancient Egyptians originated in primitive communities and held a long path of development to complex theological systems of East Despoty. It is characterized by a strong preservation of ancient beliefs on the entire history of ancient Egypt: fetishism, plant deification. Almost every Egyptian deity was worshiped as an animal. So, the god Anubis (the God of Death) was worshi in the form of a wolf, the goddess Baste - in the form of a cat, God Tota (God of the Moon, Wisdom, Letters and Accounts, Patron of Sciences, Sciences, Sacred Books and Witchcraft) - in the form of Ibisa or Pavian, God Mountain (the god of the Sun, who considered the patron saint of Pharaoh, who was declared him with earth embodiment) - in the form of falcon, etc. At a later stage, anthropomorphization of deities is observed (i.e., putting them by human qualities). At the same time, old ideas did not disappear, but began to be combined with new ones. Thus, the goddess Baste was portrayed in the form of a woman with a cat head, God is in the form of a person with a head of Ibis, and so on. (See Appendix No. 1). The murder of the sacred animal was punished with death. Sacred animals and birds after death were embarrassed and buried on special cemeteries. The transition from hunting farms to farming and cattle breeding has led significant changes in religious beliefs. The gods advanced to the fore, personified various elements: the sky (goddess Nut), the earth (god Geb), the Sun (God Ra), the Luna (God) and others. In the image of God Hapi Egyptian farmers revealed the Nile River.

The ancient Egyptians had a widespread cult of the dead. According to their religious ideas, each person had several souls: BA, depicted in the form of a bird with a human head, ka, who was the double of a person, and others. According to the ultimate Egyptians, only the body that has considered the soul that has been refuge, could be achieved by Eternal Bliss It was saved. Hence the custom of the mummification of corpses. To preserve the mummified body, a tomb was built, which was supplied with objects used by the deceased during life. Little statues of servants ("Harbor" - defendants were also placed in the tomb. The Egyptians believed that the power of the deceased was revitalized by these figurines and they would work on it in the afterlife world. After the death of the soul of the deceased, according to the ideas of the Egyptians, went on a trip to the afterlife, where the monsters waved it, to escape from which it was possible with the help of spells and prayers contained in the "Book of Dead" - an integral part of the funeral inventory, 125th Chapter "Books Dead "is devoted to the afterlime court over the human soul. In the face of the Supreme Judge of the Mersery World of Osiris, psychostasia occurred - weighing the heart of the late on scales balanced by the symbol of truth. The heart, burdened by sins, violated the balance, and then the deceased devouring the terrible monster of Amamat-Eater; The righteous, whose hearts did not violate the balance of scales, went to the paradise - "Fields of Ialu".

Initially, in each number he was honored with his main God: In Heliopole, the Ra-Atum was worshiped, in the philas - Amon, etc. Food triads were formed (for example, FVAN: Amon - the God of the Sun, his wife Mut - Goddess of Heaven, their son Honsu - God moon). Around the triads formed the hierarchy of the gods. Combining Nomov in two states (Upper Egypt and Nizhny Egypt), and then into a single despoty (about 3 thousand BC) made it necessary to create national cults, the unification of religion. The main place in the unified religion was occupied by the gods of GEGEMON. So, in the era of the middle and new kingdoms, when the capital of the state became the news, the FVAN god Amon became the main deity of Egypt, and the Egyptian priests identified him with the former Supreme God of the Republic of Armenia.

The hierarchy of the gods led by the king of Gods is the reflection of the orders of Eastern Despoty. The Supreme God (Ra-Atum, and later Amon-Ra) has his yard, his Vizier (God of wisdom Tota), its office, etc. The official religion declared Pharaoh to the embodiment of God, the living God prescribed to Him God's honors. Huge donations and various benefits led to the strengthening of priesthood, which began to dispute power from Pharaoh. AmenHotep IV (Ehnaton) attempt (end 15 - beginning of 14 centuries. BC. Er) To undermine the power of priesthood by the introduction of monotheism failed; Entered the cult of the single God of Aton's Sunoon was soon canceled. At 11 c. BC e. Fan Priests captured the throne of Egypt and installed theocratic.

Section 2. Sumerian Mythology

Summerians - tribes of unknown origin, in con. 4th thousand to n. e. Asshed the Tiger Valley and Euphrates and formed the first in the city-state two-frekter. By the time of formation of the first Sumerian cities-states, an idea of \u200b\u200bthe anthropomorphic divine was formed. Divities - the patrons of the community were primarily the personification of creative and producing the forces of nature, with which the ideas about the power of the military leader of the community tribe combined with the functions of the supreme priest. Of the first written sources (end 4 - the beginning of the 3rd thousand), the names of the gods of Inanany, Enlil, and others, and from 27-26 centuries. - Theofor names and the most ancient list of gods.

In each city, the state retained their deities and heroes, cycles of myths and their own priest tradition. To con. 3 thousand to n. e. There was no single systematized Pantheon, although there were several generalumery deities: Enlil (Vladyka air, king of gods and people), Enki.(Lord of underground freshwater and the world ocean, later the deity of wisdom), Naina(Lunar God), Warrior God Ningircles, and etc.

The oldest list of gods from the headlight (approx. 26 V. BC) highlights the six supreme gods of the Ranneshumer Pantheon: Enlil, An, Innana, Enki, Nanna and Sunny God Utu. The ancient Sumerian deities, including the astral gods, preserved the function of the fertility of fertility, which was thought of as a sense of a separate community. One of the most typical images is the image of a mother's goddess, which was revered under different names: Damgalnuna, Ningursag, Nings (MAX), Nintu. Mom, mom. It is possible that the goddess of the Mother's goddess are connected and the patroness of the cities: so, the Sumerian goddesses Bay and Gatumdug also bear the epithets "Mother", "Mother of all cities".

See Appendix No. 2.

In the myths about the gods of fertility, a close relationship of myth with a cult is traced. In the cult songs from Hurray (Kon. 3rd thousand BC.) It is said about the love of the priestess of Lukur to the king Shu-Suena and emphasizes the sacred and official character of their compound. The hymns of the deified kings of the III dynasty of the Ursa and the dynasty of Isin also show that between the king and the Supreme Priestess, the rite of sacred marriage was committed every year, in which the king represented the embodiment of the shepherd Dumuza, and the priestess - the goddess of Inanna. The content of the works includes the motives of the courtship and wedding of the heroes of the gods, the descent of the goddess to the underground kingdom and the replacement of her hero, the death of the hero and crying on him and the return of the hero to the Earth. All products of the cycle are in anticipation of the drama-action, which constituted the basis of the ritual and figuratively embodied the metaphor "Life - Death - Life".

Myths related to the cult of fertility give information about the views of the Schmerians about the underground kingdom. There is no clear idea about the location of the underground kingdom. There not only descend, but also "fall"; The border of the underground kingdom is an underground river through which the carrier is recreated. Finding in hell pass through seven gates of the underworld, where they are met by the main gatekeeper of Neti. The fate of the dead under Earth is hard. The bread of their humps (sometimes it is unclean), Solon's water (drinking can serve as a drink). Underground world Tömen, full of dust, its inhabitants, "like birds, wear clothes wings." There are no ideas about "Niv Souls", as not and information about the court of the dead, where they would judge on behavior in life and according to the rules of morality. A tolerable life (pure drinking water, peace) is honored by the souls, according to which the funeral rite was fulfilled and the victims were brought, as well as fallen in battle and large-wing. Judges of the underground world, Anunnaki, sitting in front of Ereshkagal, the master of the underground kingdom, and only death sentences are delivered. The names of the dead lies into its table a woman-scribe of the underground kingdom of Gesterinan. The unknown souls of the dead return to Earth and bring trouble, buried through the "River, which separates from people" and is the border between the world of the living and the world of the universal. The river crosses the boat with the Carrival of the Underground World of Ur Shanabi or Demon of Humut-Tabal.

A few myths came about the creation of people, but only one is completely independent - about Enki and Ningmes. Enki and Ningmes pose a man from clay Abbe, the underworld of the world's ocean, and attract a goddess of Namma to the process of creating a goddess - "Mother, who gave life to all of the gods." The goal of creating a person is to work on the gods: to handle land, put the cattle, collect fruits, feed the gods with your victims. When a person is made, the gods define him fate and arrange a feast on this occasion. On the feast, the chips and nines are beginning to sculpt people again, but they have freaks: a woman who is unable to give birth, creature, devoid of sex, and so on.

Many myths are devoted to the creation and birth of gods. Cultural heroes are widely represented in Sumerian mythology. Demiurge's creators are mostly Enlil and Enki. According to various texts, the goddess Ninksi is a brewing nap, the goddess of the Utta - weaving craft, enlil - the creator of the wheel, grain; Gardening is the invention of the gardener of Shukalitudda. A certain archaic king of Enmedurank is announced by the inventor of different forms of the prediction of the future, including predictions using oil outpouring. The inventor of the harp is some Ningal Parigal, the epic heroes of Enmermar and Gilgamesh are the creators of urban planning, and Enmermar - also writing.

Diverse and degree of activity and passivity of every deity. So, Inanna, Enki, Ningursag, Dumuzi, some secondary deities are most alive. The most passive God - "Father of the Gods" An.

Section 3. Cult Heroes

In the mythology of ancient civilizations

The heroic period is the initial period of the history of many peoples, which are preserved by legends in myths, tales and folk poems. Active persons are the characters who are attributed to the divine origin (demigods), possessing superhuman power; For example, Greeks Hercules, Teze and others, at the Germans of the Heroes of Nibelung's Songs, the Slavs Bogatyri, Gilgamesh in Mesopatamy, etc.

In Rome, there was a legend about the wanders of the Trojan Hero of Enai - the ancestor of the founders of Rome - Romulus and Rem. In the future, the Mythology of the Romans was mainly related to the legends about EXER, Romule and replacing the kings.

Heroes in ancient Greek religion and mythology legendary leaders or warriors, revered after death as half aimed creature. The cult of heroes was supported by a community or city that saw their ancestors in them. Many heroes revered in ancient Greece in 1st thousand to n. e., in their origin, ancient local deities, which were invalid to the spread of Olympic religion (Agamemenon, Elena, etc.). The Greeks were also honored by Heroes-eponyms, that is, persons named by the name of the tribe, the city (Lacceedamon, Corinth et al.); Most often it was fictional faces. Also, outstanding historical personals were also ranked for heroes after their death (for example, Tirano-chucks of the Garmody and Aristiton in Athens, the poet of archives for about. Paros, etc.).

Heroic coupling myths are grouped by local cycles. The most interesting circle of myths of Uruk, associated with the names of the heroes of Enmerkar, Lugalbanda and Gilgamesh - Semi-Ladar rulers of Uruk in Sumer (28 V. BC. E.). In 3 thousand to n. e. The Sumerian epic songs about Gilgamesh have come down to us. At the end of the 3rd - early 2nd thousand on the Akkadian (Assiro-Babylonian), a big epic poem about Gilgamesh was drawn up. It describes the friendship of Hilgamesh with a wild man Enkida, despair Gilgamesh after the death of a friend and his wandering in search of the secret of immortality, visiting the ancestor of the Wethapishti, who survived the flood, and so on. The legend of Gilgamesh was also distributed to Hettov, Hurrites, in Palestine and etc. The most famous option of the beginning of the 1st thousand to N is known. e. from Ninevei (Kujundzhik).

The myth of the enemy's enemy and snakes is also known and the attempt of the hero is ethane to take off on the sky on the Eagle. We have reached us in the main record of official versions of myths, subordinate to the idea of \u200b\u200bman's powerlessness before the gods.

Section 4. Culture of Babylonia

Babylonian culture, culture of the people inhabited in antiquity, in the 4-1th thousand to n. er, Mesopotamia - Tiger's two-range and Euphrates (the territory of modern Iraq), is characterized by a relatively high level of science, literature and art, on the one hand, and the predominance of religious ideology - on the other.

4.1. Development of material culture Babylonia

The material culture of the people of Babylonia was at a relatively high level. However, stone tools came out completely from use only at the beginning of the 3rd militant. BC. e. In metallurgy in the middle of the 3rd thousand. Casting, forging, chasing, making gold and silver wire, filigree were known. The main building material was raw and, less often, burned brick; It was known, but the arch, the drainage system, etc. was applied. Later, noticeable progress in the technique begins. Military equipment is improved - the wheel arousal (from the beginning of the 2nd thousand), the armor of copper bleaks (from the middle of the 2nd thousand), horse archer, a sword, fortified military camps, siege tools - Taranians are built, stone and flooded bridges are built (on leather burues).

In 1st thousand to n. e. In Babylonia, iron guns appear, in the craft - also a diamond drill, approximately at the turn of the 2nd and 1st thousand to N. e. A new irrigation technique appears: waterfront wheel (silent), and "endless" rope with leather buckets (Cherd).

4.2. Development of science brevony

The most important factor in the development of science was an economic practice that required, first of all, the production of measures of measures, as well as the creation of receptions for determining the fields of fields, the volume of granaries and artificial water bodies, the calculations of working standards with the channels of channels, in construction and craft; On this basis by the end of the 3rd thies. BC e. The Sumero-Babylonian mathematics was created. Babylonian mathematicians widespreadly created by the sixteen position of the pilot account; Based on this system, various computing tables were drawn up: divisions and multiplication of numbers, squares and cubes of numbers and their roots (square and cubic) and others. Babylonians solved square equations, knew the "Pythagore's" theorem "and had methods for finding all sorts of" Pythagorovy "numbers ( more than a thousand years before Pythagora); In addition to planimetric tasks, stereometric, associated with the definition of the volume of various kinds of spaces, bodies, were widely practiced the drawing of plans of fields, localities, individual buildings, but usually not scale.

Large success reached Babylonian in the field of chemistry, which, of course, is purely applied. From the 2nd thousand to n. e. Numerous bronze making recipes are preserved, glazes are known and multicolored watering on ceramics.

The attempt to summarize geographical ideas is the "World Map", where the land is depicted in the form of a plane crossed by rivers with a tiger and Euphrates running down from the northern mountains, and surrounded by the oceans, on the surface of which it, apparently, was thought of floating. The ocean seemed to be surrounded by the "dam of heaven," on which several (three or seven) heavenly arches restned; Under Earth, the underworld ("Great Mountain"). But the geographical horizon of the Babylonian merchants-practitioners was much wider (to the 1st thousand - from Spain to India).

A major step forwarded at this time also medicine. Surgical operations included amputations, splicing fractures, removal of Belm with eyes, etc. In medical texts that have come down from the 2nd half of the 2nd thousand to n. e. and the 1st half of the 1st thousand to n. e., parts of the human body have already been reduced to an anatomical system. Some diseases and appropriate drugs were also systematized.

Astrology began to develop from records of astronomical and meteorological observations (only in 1 thousand to n. E.) And astronomy. Planets were allocated, which, as opposed to stationary stars compared with quietly grazing sheep, were called "Bibbu", "goats". Each Planet received its special name (except Mercury, called "Bibbu", that is, the planet): Venus - Dilbat, Jupiter - Mulubabbar ("Star-Sun"), Mars - "Slabatana" and Saturn - Cayman . At the same time, the observations of the movements of the planets began; In particular, texts are preserved on the study of the movement of Venus. The relatively high development of astronomy was apparently due to the needs of the lunar calendar . Initially, each city of the city had an independent calendar, but after the elevation of Babylon, the calendar adopted in Babylon became common to the whole country. The year consisted of 12 lunar months, which had 29 or 30 days (synodic month, or the period of shift of the phases of the moon, is approximately 29 EQ F (1; 2) days). Due to the fact that the sunny year is longer than the lunar for 11 days, from time to time to eliminate this inconsistency, an additional month was introduced. Already up to the middle of the 2nd thousand to n. e. Constellations were described, the records of heliacal sunrises were listed, etc. Starting from the middle of the 1st thousand to n. e. The solid rules for the insertion of leap months are established, computational astronomy develops intensively, texts are preserved, where for a certain year (or sequence of years), the positions of the moon (or planets) are indicated at certain time intervals. Great merit of Babylonian astronomers was the discovery sarosa - The time interval, after which the solar and lunar eclipses are repeated in the same sequence.

To the first essays of a scientific nature in ancient Babylon, the lists of writing signs can be attributed - first picturesque, and then developed from them - clinp - and lists of terms recorded using such signs. Such lists were first compiled about 3000 BC. e. Later, in connection with the practical need, certain knowledge was accumulated in the field of philology.

The focus of science in Babylon until the middle of the 2nd mil. e. There was the so-called E-Dubba - the type of the secular academy, who prepared the mainly scribe, but apparently, and temple schools. The scribe was the honorary title of the educated person. In accordance with the degree of erudition and specialization, about twenty species of scribes differed. Among the didactic school texts are known to "teaching an agriculture", something like a short agricultural reference book.

4.3. Mythology of Babylonia

The myths that have come down to us reflect mainly representing the peoples living with irrigation agriculture, as well as sedentary hunters and cattle breeders. According to the ideas of ancient peoples, the flat land lies on the surface of world waters surrounding it and speakers in the form of well and river water; These waters are separated from the heavenly waters of the "dam of heaven," which rests several hard skills - the sky of the Sun, the Moon, planets and still stars. Inside the Earth - the grim city of the dead. The world is created either by a goddess-mother, or (in late myths) by male deity (Enlil, Marduk). So, according to the Babylonian myth (2 thousand BC), in the struggle of the elder gods with the younger first, the monster is headed - the goddess Tiamat ("Sea"), the second is the god Marduk. By killing Tiamat, Marduk dissects her body in half, turning it into underground and celestial waters.

During the elevation period of Babylon (18 V. BC), the Supreme Divine was announced by the patron of this city. Marduk . In 1st thousand to n. e. Astral cults are developing on the basis of identifying some deities with celestial luminais. Along with the Supreme God, the "great gods that decisive fate, which constitute the Council of Elders in the community of the gods, was recognized as 7 or 12 main deities.

Presentations retained to the cult of the leader as incarnation of the vitality of the community. The remnant of the ritual killing aged leader was in Babylon, an annual rite, in which the king was temporarily replaced by the poor or a slave who were overlooking the Supreme Priest.

At 2-1th thousand, the concept of sin and repentance is obtained, which, however, was perceived mainly in a ritual plan (violation of magical prohibitions and rules for the worship of gods and the redemption of the pregrocution).

Professional priesthood is created in Babylonia very early - another 4th thousand priest was the ruler (king). For religious purposes from the 4th thousand to n. e. From the community began to allocate special extensive temple economies, then they entered both components in the royal economies.

4.4. Artistic culture of Babylonia

In the artistic culture of the ancient world of Babylonia, plastic arts of the 4-1th thousand to n are occupied an important place. e. In Babylonia, as in ancient Egypt, there are initial development of many forms of architecture, sculptures, art synthesis, human and the surrounding world, characteristic of the next epoch. Slowness of social development and the subordination of the art of religion determine the sustainability of artistic structures and style principles.

The oldest artistic monuments of Babylonia (blind from the hands of the cult vessels from clay with a painted rhythmic geometric pattern and stylized by images of birds, animals and people; figurines from clay) rise to 5-4 cm. e. From the middle of the 4th thousand to n. e. A potted circle appears, the construction of temples, walls, which are sometimes decorated with a geometric mosaic pattern of multicolored caps of clay "nails". At the end of the 4th - the beginning of the 3rd thousand to n. e. Round sculpture gets development, the principles of the Mesopotamian sculptural relief are folded, the art of glyptics (carved cylindrical seals with plot scenes marked by freedom of composition and movement transmission) is blooming.

During the formation of state cities (the beginning of the 3rd thousand to n. E.) In art, the features of conventions and canonism are growing. 7-6 centuries. BC e. Flowering Novo Babylonian period in art. The ensemble of the city of Babylon with a complex system of fortifications, wide direct roads of the processions, the Palace of Nebuchadnezzar II, the Esagil Temple Complex and the 90-meter Zigarath of EtoMenanka.

By legend, no descendants were erected on the land of Sennar (Babylonia) the Babylonian Tower to reach heaven. God, angry with the idea and actions of builders, mixed their tongues so that they could not understand each other, and scattered the world themselves. The city where the tower was built was called Babylon, which is happening, according to biblical etymology, from the Jewish "Balal" ("mix"). This story is one of the first attempts to explain the origin of various languages \u200b\u200bin the world. In fact, the Akkadian word "Babylon" ("Bab-or") means "gate of God."

According to historical information, the city of Babylon is the capital of Babylonia, located on the banks of the Euphrate, was famous for his temple Esagila, the name of which is translated as "reaching clouds". This temple was built Hammurapi, one of the first Babylonian kings.

Hanging gardens were one of the most famous dicks of the ancient city Babylon. However, although archaeologists have found the alleged ruins of the gardens, it is impossible to prove that it is. We only know one thing: the gardens really existed, because people saw and described them.

The legend tells that the king ordered the Gardens for the sake of the Amitis young wife gardens, hoping that they would remind her native Persian Mountains.

Hanging gardens were built, probably at the river and looked at the city walls of Babylon. They were arranged in the form of terraces, the top of which may have risen over the ground of 40 meters. Nebuchadnezzar ordered to plant all imaginable types of trees and flowers in the garden. They were overlooked from the whole empire on the carts, harmful by the will, and river lands. The success of gardeners must have depended on the good irrigation system for which water from Euphrates was used. Water could be lifted to the upper terrace using a chain bucket attached to the wheel, which rotated slaves. And then she must have escaped in the gardens of streams and waterfalls, so the earth always remained wet.

See Appendix No. 3

As a result of the conquest of the Babylon of the Power of Ahemenides (539 BC) and its entry into the state of Seleucidov (the end of 4V. BC. E.) In the Babylonian culture, the influence of Persian is manifested in Babylonian culture, and later than Hellenistic art. In turn, Babylonian art affected the development of art Iran and Parfia.

Section 5. Antique World of Greece.

Life and morals of ancient Greece

The term "antiquity", the root concept of which is the Latin word Antiquus - ancient, denotes the totality of everything that is associated with Greco-Roman antiquity, starting with Homeric Greece (approximately IX century. BC) and ending with the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476 G. N. E.). The term arose at the beginning of the XVIII century. In French and meant a special type of art related in the early history of mankind.

5.1. Homeric period, or "Dark Century".

The period of XI-IX centuries. called "Homerovsky", since the main source of information about him are the poems of Homer Oriada and Odyssey.

At the end of the XII century. BC. Greek-Doriytsev tribes were invaded.

Dorian conquest led Greece to regression - a sharp reduction in population population, a lifetime fall, cessation of monumental and generally stone construction, craft decline, weakening trade contacts, loss of writing. For the entire territory of Greece, previous state entities disappeared and the primitive communal system was established. Of the achievements of the Mycena Civilization, Dorians borrowed only a pottery circle, metal processing technique and shipbuilding, grape culture and olive trees. At the same time, Dorians brought with them the art of smelting and processing iron, the practice of using it in a military business.

XI-IX centuries. BC. - the era of the domination of the natural economy. A special role has been acquired cattle breeding: the cattle was both the criterion of wealth, and the measure of value. The main type of social organization has become a rural community (Demos), who lives in a small territory and striving in complete isolation. The community and their genera and families have made everything necessary for themselves.

Slavery did not play a big economic role. The main part of the slaves, as in the Mycenaean era, was women and children used on auxiliary work in the household. Male slaves usually performed shepherds. Slaves were mainly prisoners of war. Slavery had a patriarchal character, and the standard of living of slaves was little different from the standard of living of their owners.

Gradually in the community, where the equality in poverty initially reigned, the process of social differentiation, which contributed constant domestic and external military conflicts was intensified.

In IX century BC. The royal genus gradually loses its privileges, and their monopolized posts become elected, turning into the property of the whole elite.

5.2. Archaic Greece.

Period VIII-VI centuries. BC. - Time of ambitious changes in the ancient Greek world. During this period, the number of iron weapons increased significantly, their range was expanded and their quality improved. The iron ax facilitated the fight against trees and shrubs, and iron lemeh, kirk, hoe and sickle made it possible to increase yields.

The foundation of the colonies in distant overseas lands (Great Greek colonization) was promising (great Greek colonization) in three areas: Western, northeast and southeast. Progress in shipbuilding promoted successful colonial activity. Based on the achievements of Phoenician shipbuilders, two new types of ship - Pentekonter and Triele were created. As a result of colonization in Greece, the second type of external expansion was enthusiastic (trading).

The craft is separated from the farming; Handicraft work specializes. The center of economic life moves from the village to the city, the interests of which are directed not deep into the mainland, but at sea; New cities are now based on the coast next to comfortable bays, and old (Athens, Corinth) establish close connections with nearby ports.

5.3. Socio-political structure of the Archaic Epoch.

The Archaic Epoch was marked by two leading trends - the desire for the union and transformation of the aristocratic system. The first trend was most fully expressed in Sinaikism ("joint settlement"), combining several previously independent communities by resettling their inhabitants to an existing or newly-general fortified center. Religious and political unions arise, unifying groups of states of a certain area, a whole region or even different regions of the Greek world.

By the beginning of the VII century. BC. The monarchical system actually ceases to exist in attics, booties, northeast Peloponnese states, many of the cities of Malaya Asia. In most cases, this change costs without violence: with the Tsar, a collective body is created (Eforate, the counterparts), to which its basic functions are transmitted, except for priests; His position turns into elective. Often, the top authority of the executive power becomes a panel of magistrates elected for a certain period (usually per year) and must report to the aristocratic council after the expiration of its term. In this system, the People's Assembly, persist as an institution, plays an extremely small role.

By the middle of the VII century. BC. Aristocracy has lost its leading position in the military sphere. The widespread distribution of iron weapons and armor and their relative cheapness compared to the bronze changes the social composition of heavy infantry (goplites), recruiting now from the middle layers of the city and the village. The main defender of the state becomes not to know, and the middle layers.

In the second half of the VII century. BC. The role of the urban demos is increasingly in the economic, and then in socio-political life.

The first step towards the restrictions of all the elite and the transformation of a chaotic aristocratic society in an ordered civilian arrangement was the record of laws. In the first half of the VII century. BC. Such an entry was made in Corinth and phiwas normuts ("legislators") Fidon and Philolam, and in 621 BC. In Athens, Archon Dragon. The codification of laws in a number of Greek states was carried out by Esimnets ("organizers") - intermediaries elected by the community for the forced streamlining of civil cases, which not only recorded existing legal norms, but also "improved" (reformed) them. Special attention was paid to the regulation of proceedings, the protection of property and care of morality.

In the VII-VI centuries. BC. The main form of violent destruction of the aristocratic regime was tyranny, which is called older. Typically, the tyranans became the aristocratic layers. Often in front of the coup, they occupied high civil and especially military positions (Paulolarm, Strategi), which allowed them to decline the authority in Goplites - the main military force in the state. Tirana often surround themselves with bodyguards and relied on mercenaries. The most important posts occupied their relatives and adherents. The narrowing of the social base of tyrannic regimes was the reason for their widespread disappearance by the end of the VI century. BC.

By the end of the VI century. BC. In the overwhelming majority of Greek states, a republican system was established, in which political sovereignty belonged to the "people" - a set of full citizens: men, indigenous inhabitants of a given area, who owned hereditary land plots (with the supreme ownership of the entire community). A citizen had the right to participate in the People's Assembly (Ecclesia), serve in the army, to elect and be elected to public posts. The People's Assembly formed the Council (Boule) - the highest governing body and elected for a certain period of magistrates, which after the expiration of authority reported to him; There was practically no permanent branch. Depending on the composition of the Civil Corps, two forms of republican system - oligarchy and democracy were distinguished. If during democracy all members of the community used equal political rights, then with the oligarchy, the degree of possession was determined by the property value: persons with a small income or disabled outside the civil team and were not allowed to military service, or translated into the category of "passive" citizens deprived of access to public administration.

The result of the socio-political development of the archaic period was the birth of a classic policy - a small city-state. The city was a place of socially significant events - religious rites and festivals, people's assembly, theatrical ideas, sports competitions. The nationality of the polis life was the Central City Square (Agora) and Temples. The spiritual basis of the Polis was a special polis worldview (the ideal of a socially active free citizen, Patriot and Defender of the Fatherland; subordination of personal interests in public). The small framework of the city-state allowed the Greek to sense his close relationship with him and their responsibility for him (direct democracy).

5.4. Culture of the Archaic Epoch.

The Archaic Epoch has become an important milestone in the development of ancient Greek culture. At the turn of the IX-VIII centuries. BC. A writing was revived, forgotten in the Homeric period. Laws and memorable inscriptions were cut on wooden boards, stone, marble and bronze plates; All other texts were written on the skin, woody flasher, canvas, clay shards and wooden waxes, later on a papyrus delivered from Egypt. Signs were walked by a pylon or painted with reed tastes, dipped into ink from soot with the addition of glue or from the beam of the roots of the marines.

The spread of writing gave impetus to the development of ancient Greek literature. In the VIII century BC. Gomemer's poems were recorded before the raised nucleons. At the end of the VIII century. BC. Gesiod created two new types of epic poetry - didactic and genealogical. From the middle of the VII century. BC. The leading genre was lyrics .. The birth of the drama includes the archaic period; The ancient Greek theater is issued. Prose genres appear: historic history, philosophical prose, fable.

Urban planning (stone buildings, layout of the urban complex, plumbing) is rapidly developing. Monumental architecture is reborn (first of all the construction of temples); A new construction method is introduced with huge stone blocks, the gaps between which are filled with small stones and rubble. The warrant system of the combination of carriers (column with the base and the capita) and the universal (architect, frieze and eaves) parts of the buildings and their decoration are invented. The first warrant was Dorian (beginning of the VII century. BC), the second - Eoli (mid VII century. BC), Third - Ionian (mid VI century BC).

The archaic era is marked by the appearance of plastic art. Sculpture focuses on the ideal of a young, beautiful and courageous hero, personifying the virtues of a citizen of the Polis - Warrior and Athlete; The generalized image of a decilited person or self-heeled God is dominated. The art of images of the naked male body and the transfer of its proportions will be improved. The female figure is usually draped into richly decorated clothes. The temple sculpture and relief are intensively developing, becoming mandatory elements of the external and internal decor; Reliefs, as a rule, reproduce group scenes on mythological plots. By the end of the VI century. BC. The ability to transmit relationships between characters and freely place shapes in space.

In painting (Vasopysi) at the turn of the IX-VIII centuries. BC. Demits the art of the sign, geometric symbol; For replacing, he comes to understandable and visual self-actuated mythological images. Geometric painting style in VII century. BC. I am inferior to an orientalizing style, in which, with abundance of fantastic animals and plant ornaments, images of living beings are dominated, primarily the gods of Greek mythology. By mid vi in. BC. The vase "black-phi-food style" is distributed, where the carpet ornament is completely supplanted by a lively image and where traffic is skillfully passed. About 530 BC The "redfigure style" is approved, which allowed to be skillfully transfer the volume and mobility of the human body and the depth of space.

An important indicator of the progress of Greek culture was the birth of philosophy as science. At the end of the VII century. BC. In Ionia (Millet), the naturophilosophical school arose; Her representatives considered the whole world with a single material whole, and its unchanging primary - an animated material substance. Heraclit Efesse at the end of the VI century. BC. He put forward the idea of \u200b\u200bthe changeable essence of being (the eternal cycle of elements in nature). In southern Italy, Pythagora Samossky created a Pythagorean school who saw in numbers and numerical relations the basis of all things; He is credited with the idea of \u200b\u200bthe immortality of the soul and the posthumous migrations. Ksenofan Kolofonsky (approx. 565 - after 480 BC) developed a pantheistic teaching on the identity of God and the Universe. His ideas were influenced by the emergence of the school of Eleans, who considered being a single and unchanged, and the multiplicity and mobility of things of the illusion;

5.5. Classical Greece.

In V c. BC. The ancient Greek world became an object of large-scale external aggression by Persia. An open military confrontation of the Greeks and Persians continued more than half a century (500-449 BC). In 449 BC Calliel, the world was concluded, according to which the powers of the Ahemenidov recognized the independence of the Greek policies of Malaya Asia and refused the military presence in the Aegean basin.

After the expulsion of Persians from Greece, disagreements were aggravated both between the individual Greek policies and between the unions of states.

5.6. The economy of Greece is a classic era.

The war stimulated the development of shipbuilding, monumental construction (fortress, walls), weapons and related metallurgy, metalworking and leather craft. Greece received a large number of prisoners, as well as material values, which contributed to the growth of commodity production and the use of slaves in it. Agriculture finally acquired a dilated nature with the predominance of labor-intensive intensive cultures; The leading role in it belonged to a small manufacturer; Large places related to the market was a bit.

5.7. Culture of classical Greece.

V c. BC. V c. BC. - Golden age of Greek culture. There was a fracture in urban planning - the principle of regular planning of cities with intersecting at the right corner of the same type of streets was established and the same rectangular. The warrant system reached the peak of its development. Dorian peripter turned into the main type of building. About 430 BC There was a new, Corinthian, an order with an elegant capital.

Sculpture V in. BC. It continues to focus on the image of the perfect person - the hero, the athlete warrior, but acquires a large plastic content. Based on the geometric study of the human body, a proportional ratio of its parts is established and universal rules for building an ideal figure are developed. The schematics and static the archaic sculpture are overcome, the skill of movement is being improved.

The picturesque image has ceased to be a flat contour silhouette, sprinkling over the surface. In the second quarter V c. BC. The polygnotot opened a new way to transfer the depth of space by placing figures at different levels. In the middle of V c. BC. Athenian Apollodor invented reception of lighting; He is credited with the creation of the first works of easel painting (on the boards). In the second half of the V c. BC. Approved the "free" style of Vasopysi (figures in the FAS, in the profile, in three-hard turnover, combined into complex scenes). The highest achievement of classical painting was the painting of attic white leeks, in which the emotional state of heroes was unusually skillfully passed.

V c. BC. It was marked by the flourishing of Greek literature, first of all dramas. In the work of Eshil, Sophocla and Euripid is drawn up classic tragedy. Gradually increases the number of actors and the value of the choir drops. Mythological plots are increasingly visible. The principle of strict unity of action is approved: the tragedy ceases to be a series of weakly related scenes. There is a change in the interpretation of images. Classical comedy acquires his form in the work of Catina and Aristophan. The number of actors in it is at least three, expanded and the composition of the choir. Comedy v c. BC. Oriented exclusively on the satirical and parody interpretation of modernity, but it does not occupy human actions, but abstract ideas.

In the field of lyrical poetry, Horic Lyrics acquired a special role. The genre of epicoves is developing (a song in honor of the winner on the contest). Poetry serves as a glorification of religion, polis-order and polis morality.

In V c. BC. Greek philosophy developed intensively. Materialists argued the material nature of the universe, and considered it eternally mobile and changeable; In their opinion, all phenomena are the result of the connection or separation of the elements, "seeds" - homeomeries, atoms. "The Senior" Sofists, denied the objective reality of the world and the possibility of his knowledge, insisted on the relativity of all things; They made a significant contribution to the development of logic and rhetoric. At the heart of ethical teachings of Socrates lay a rationalistic understanding of morality: the path to virtue is the acquisition of true knowledge, the prerequisite of which is self-knowledge; The reduced method of finding the truth - "dialectic" - in the form consisted of irony (disclosure of the internal contradictions in the approved judgment) and Majortiki (setting the leading issues), and the content was divided into induction (the study of opinions and the choice of preferred) and the definition (truth formulation).

In V c. BC. There was a decisive fracture in the development of historiography. Herodota marked the beginning of the Greek tradition of historical history, contacting the central event of his era - Greek-Persian wars. Unlike logographic, he managed to create a universal ethno-historical essay, refreshing the history, life and morals not only by the Greeks, but also neighboring peoples. Greek historiography has reached his highest point in the works of Fukidid, who wrote the history of the Peloponess War.

To the second half of the V c. BC. Refers the birth of scientific medicine. Hippocrates rejected religious and mystical ideas about the physical condition of man and suggested a rationalistic explanation. He believed that health depends on the right combination in the human body of four liquids - blood, sputum, yellow and black bile; The violation of their equilibrium leads to diseases. The best method of treatment is natural (mobilization of the body for recovery), so the doctor must know and take into account the individual features of each patient.

Olympic Games (Greek. Olýmpia) - the oldest and most popular in ancient Greece utre functions and competitions. It was arranged in honor of God Zeus, according to tradition, from 776 BC. e. In Olympia 1 time every 4 years. At the time of the Olympic Games, the "Holy World" was declared for all Greeks, at this time in Greece did not carry hostilities and the roads to the Olympia were safe. Olympic games were held within 5 days: the first and fifth days were devoted to solemn processions, sacrifices and ceremonies, the rest - the sports competitions of men and boys (up to 472 BC. E. Competitions passed one day). The program of the Olympic Games in the classical time included competitions in ride on chariot, pentathlon (running, throwing spears and disc, jumping, wrestling), fist fight, art contest, etc. Only full-fledged citizens of Greek policies could act, later - also the Romans. Women were not allowed to the place of the Olympic Games. The winners of the competition (Olympionics) were awarded the wreath of the branches of Olive and used the honorable and respect in Greece, sometimes even deified. In their cities, they usually received important economic and political privileges. During the games, poets, philosophers, speakers performed before the gambling. Managing and judges of the Games were elected from the citizens of the region of Elide Ellenodika. In the V century BC Citizens of Olympia decided to build a temple of Zeus. The majestic building was raised between 466 and 456. BC. It was built from huge stone blocks, and massive columns surrounded him. For several years after the construction of the construction in the temple there was no worthy statue of Zeus, although it was quite soon that it was necessary. The famous Athenian Sculptor Fidium was elected as the creator of the statue.

Zeus recresented on the throne inlaid by black tree and precious stones. The completed statue reached 13 m. Height and almost concerned the ceiling of the temple. It seemed that if Zeus got up, he would demolish the roof. Along the walls built platforms for the audience so that people rising to them could see the face of God. After completing in 435 BC Statue for 800 years remained one of the greatest wonders of the world

See Appendix No. 4.

The submission of Greece Macedonia to the middle of IV. BC. It was conducted The general crisis of the Greek antique world in the IV century, the essence of which was the crisis of the policy as a type of state. The Peloponnesian war between Athens and Sparta, in which he learned anyway, all the greek of the policy, weakened Greece and facilitated the task of the Aquedonia.

The victory of Ancient Rome over Macedonia led to the fact that at the beginning of II century. before n. e. Greece was ruled by Rome.

Section 6. Culture of Ancient Rome

Ancient Roman culture - initially culture of the Roman community, city-state (policy) - passed a difficult path of development, expanding the borders of distribution as Rome turn into a huge Mediterranean power, including such traditionally Greek scientific and cultural centers such as Athens, Alexandria, Pergam, and DR ., Changing your character under the influence of Etruscan, Greek, Hellenistic cultures.

6.1. Religion and mythology. Greco-Roman Pantheon of the Gods.

Religion of the Ancient Time Romans was based mainly on the submission of the internal forces inherent in individual subjects and people, and in the versions of the Keepers and the patrons of places, actions, states. These were geniuses, foams, the keeper of the home focus and the restless fire of Vesta, the spirits of the deceased - benefactor mana and evil lemurs, as well as the deities of mountains, sources, forests and individual trees, deities who have become all the stages of growing and ripening plants and people. These perfumes and deities were originally non-intriguous and impersonal, subsequently, under the influence of Etruscan and Greek religions, they were given a human appearance. Their floor was undefined, so they were often named both in men and women's birth (Janus and Yana, Favn and Faun). Some deities were descriptively designated. Sacrifice and religious ceremonies were sent with separate families in honor of their special deities, their lars, the keepers of their territorial borders - terms, spirits of dead relatives, or part of citizens, or all the people. Some festivities were private and public.

The influence of beliefs of neighboring ITALI tribes, especially Etruscov, began to influence this primitive religion. The God of Saturn, the Forest God of Salvan and the so-called Heavenly Patrician Trinity (Jupiter, originally the God of the weather, then the Supreme God of the Roman State, Juno and Minerva) were borrowed from the latter. She was opposed to Plebeian Trinity: Ceres (Goddess of Zlatkov), Lieber (God of vineyards) and Libera. After the equation in the rights of patrician and plebeans, these gods became nationwide. From the Etruscans, fortune-telling carried out by the priests of August and Garuspiki were also borrowed. The custom of building the temples was also brought by Etruscia. Before acquaintance with him, Romans honored their gods in the groves, on the mountains, in open places where Altari was put.

The Mars, Diana, Fortuna, Venus, the goddess of the land of the Feronon, in the temple of which were freed by slaves, and others, was liberated in the Temple, the Tsar, then the Tsar, then the Tsar, then the Tsar, then, was supervised by the Pontiff College led by the Supreme Pontiff. Some gods were especially revered by persons of one class or one profession. As the Greek gods began to be included in the State Pantheon with the Greek world (for example, the god of healing Eskulap, Apollo and who acquired a wide popularity of Hercules (Hercules). Roman gods were identified with Greek, Greek mythology was brought to them.

See Appendix No. 5.

Penetrated in Rome and Greek forms of cult, solemn sacrifices, processions that arranged during the festivities, spectacles-games. In 4 and especially in 3 centuries. BC e. Also under the Greek influence there was a cult of deified virtues: consent, courage, freedom, honor, resistance, loyalty, in honor of whom the temples were erected, the statues were constructed. In 3 c. BC e. The secular games in honor of the underground gods were introduced once a hundred years old and every year. Not recognized by the state cults were prohibited. However, as the difficulties of life and the weakening of many old connections agreed, the need for less formalized religion grew, faith in the immortality of the soul grew. All this contributed at the end of 2-1 centuries. BC e. The penetration of the eastern cults of Isis, Osiris, Kibel, with which Roman soldiers and merchants were acquainted in Hellenistic countries. In connection with the disasters caused by civilian wars 1 in. BC er, various prophecies spread, faith in the return of the "Golden Age", astrology, magic. At the same time, under the influence of Greek philosophy, faith weakened in the original Roman gods, religion began to be given rationalistic explanations, the old rites were forgotten. Becoming the ruler of the Empire, August (end of 1 century BC. E. - 1 century n. Er) proclaimed "Return to the Nravam of the ancestors" and tried to restore the old Roman religion and cult. However, the culture of the genius of the ruling emperor and deceased emperors began to have an increasing impact on it. He was combined with the cult of especially those who were honored by the emperors of the gods, called Augustus, imperial victories and virtues - courage, justice, condescension, generosity - and allegedly reigning in their Golden Century Management Board. Slaves and poor people who suffered from a heavy negle opposed their official deities who were not part of the gods - Silvana, Priap, Pan, who are close to workers, and at the same time almighty creators of the cosmos. The number of adherents of the eastern gods grew, the cult of which was associated with the hope of the immortality of the soul and at the arrival of a certain Savior, who promised the faithful bliss and dedicated to the mystery. Roman religion gradually accounted for decay. In wide masses, Christianity was increasing. At the end of the 4th century n. e. Emperor Feodosius I forbade the departure of pagan rituals, and the Roman religion ceased to exist.

6.2. Roman philosophy.

Roman philosophy developed under the decisive influence of the Greek philosophy of the Ellinism era, having undergone its conceptual apparatus, terminology and essential directions; She summarized the specific social experience of Rome. The initial stage of Roman philosophy is associated with the crisis of the polis ideology, the liberation of thought from the subordination of religion and mythology; This period can be called an educational, or period of secularization (3-1 centuries to n. e.). Almost official doctrine of the Roman state was stoicism with its requirements to free the personality from any dependence, with its materialism, pridentialism and fatalism.

The deification of state power and the cult of the emperor, associated with the end of the republic and the formation of the empire, were the beginning of the sacralation of philosophy, that is, the subordination of its religion. In 1 c. BC e. The representative of the Greek middle costs of the Posidia reformed stoicism in the platonic direction, as a result of which the whole course of the Stoic Platonism appeared.

2-3 centuries. - a period of developed sacralization of philosophy. Platonism began a decisive struggle with stoicism, while using Aristotle, as well as Pytyagorism, together with which not only mystical numerical operations were introduced into philosophy, but also intensive religious practice.

3-4 centuries. - the culmination of sacralized philosophy, the domination of neoplatonism, in which the synthesis of universalism and subjectivism tried on an absolute idealistic basis. Sacralized Roman philosophy turned out to be so strong that he experienced the fall in the Roman Empire and Greco-Roman paganism. She went on the basis of the theocratic ideology of the Middle Ages

6.3. Development of natural sciences of ancient Rome.

The monuments of the Latin scientific literature of the Epoch of the Roman Republic are extremely few. In 1 c. BC e. Greek cultural influence increased dramatically. In 88 BC e. The Sulla dictator took a library of the Athenian Collector of the Aidellikon books in Rome, in which Aristotle's compositions were discovered. It stimulated the revival of interest in the philosophical and natural science ledge of Aristotle and his school; Grammar Tirannion, who lived in Rome, and the head of the peripatetic school, Andronik Rhodes gave the writings of Aristotle, the type in which they later studied hard and commented.

At the end of 1 c. Astronomy and mathematics again experienced rise. Systematic observations of heavenly luminaries are carried out, books on spherical geometry and trigonometry appear. In the famous Almagest Ptolemy, the completed geocentric system of the world was set out. Astrology, which was engaged in the east, who was engaged in the largest astronomers were very popular. Diofant wrote (presumably in 3 century) "arithmetic". In 3-4 centuries. Alexandrian papp was allocated, which amounted to the "Mathematical Collection", which contained information about the mathematics of the preceding eras. In the works of Geron, Alexandrian is set out to achieve an ancient world on applied mechanics. It also writes writings on geometric optics, which was developed in the works of Ptolemy.

Mathematics and mechanics in the Romans themselves wore a narrow-position character and reduced the rules of roughly approximate calculations necessary for practical purposes. Roman numbering (originated in 5 century. BC) did not contribute to the development of arithmetic and forced to enjoy billboard and pebbles. Astronomical literature in Latin is extremely scarce and loworiginal; In Rome, astrological literature was distributed. In 46 BC e. Caesar was carried out by the calendar reform.

In the field of natural sciences, the Romans developed mainly applied disciplines. The most peculiar monuments of Roman scientific and technical literature - compositions on agriculture. A large number of works of Roman authors are devoted to architecture, construction business, hydraulic engineering, military equipment. The description of Roman water pipelines is contained in the compositions of the land and hydraulic engineering 1 V. n. e.

The needs of military affairs, as well as the basis of new colonies and distribution of land put on the emergence of the works of Roman Agrimers (Amerleners); The flourishing of this literature falls for 1-2 centuries. The rich military technical experience of the Romans is reflected in the writers of Writer Wisen, in which many technical issues related to the breakdown of camps, the construction of fortresses, etc. were set out.

Botany, which was the basis of pharmacology, found significant progress. The largest glory in antiquity and in the Middle Ages was used by the botanic-pharmacological composition of Dioscride from Kilicia, which describes 600 medicinal plants. Successes reached medicine. In the book of Caszorin "On the Day of Birth" The embryological material is intertwined with astrological data; Pharmacological essay of Combonia Larga "Compositiones" contains the first mention of the preparation of opium in history.

The characteristic features of Roman science are the presentation of scientific issues in literary and entertaining form, as well as the love of encyclopedia. Varon creates an essay in the 9 books "Disciplinae", covered grammar, logic, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, theory of music, medicine and architecture.

Territorial growth of the Rome state in 3-1 centuries. BC e. contributed to the expansion of geographical knowledge. The most significant geographical essay is Strabo Geography (in Greek. Language), which contains an exhaustive summary of information about all countries and peoples known then. Ptolemy's Geography was devoted mainly to scientific mapping methods; 27 cards were attached to the book, in the aggregate portrayed all parts of the globe - from the Canary Islands to China. At the time of Emperor Augustus, a large geographical map of the world was made, which was exhibited for universal review in Portica Octavia in Rome.

Rome did not know scientific institutions like Alexandrian Museyon. The basis of the First Public Library is attributed to the writer and the State Affilitary Gua Asia Pollyon. In the last centuries, there were 28 of them in Rome.

6.4. Legal science of ancient Rome.

Rome's right reflected and secured the socio-economic and political orders in the Roman slave society. In the oldest period, the right, the source of which were customs and few laws, was characterized by the influence of religion and community relations, the primitiveness of major institutions, strict formalism. It applied exclusively on the Quiritov, that is, the original citizens of Rome, and therefore called Kviritsky, or Civile. The most important monuments of the Roman law of this era were the laws of XII tables.

The heyday of the right in Rome accounts for 3 V. BC e. - 3rd. n. e. The inensated traditions of civil law could not adapt to new conditions generated by the rapid development of slavery and commodity-monetary relations. Therefore, along with him, a special system of legal norms was formed in the process of law-conducting activities - Pretorous law. On the basis of the Ediktov, the right not related to the narrow national framework, which entered the customs of international turnover and the conquered Romans of the peoples is the so-called nationwide right. The gradual rapprochement of civil and nationwide law led to the fact that the Roman law, retaining its conservatism, was released from excessive formalism, enriched with new institutions, reacted more flexibly to the needs of the property turnover. As a result of this process, the Roman law developed - "... the most advanced, which we only know, the form of law that has its basis for private property"

Exceptional place in the process of law-conducting in Rome was held by lawyers. The highest raising of Roman jurisprudence is 1-3 centuries. n. e.

During this period there were two main legal schools - the prosecutians (supporters of the Republican Building) and Sabinians (supporters of the Principuit), which expressed the interests of various layers of the Roman society. The complete incomprehension of the initial positions of the representatives of these schools led serious discrepancies in solving them of state and civil issues. Since August, emperors provide prominent lawyers the right to give advice that are binding. The compositions of such lawyers along with Pretor's edicts, laws, senatascons, the imperial constitutions were acquired. According to the law, 426 works of 5 prominent lawyers, as well as the opinions of the lawyers quoted by them were dodged legal force. Comprehensive protection of the interests of the private owner is ensured. At the same time, being in the service of emperors, lawyers supported their claims for unlimited power, creating, according to F. Engels, "... The most vile government law, which ever existed"

In 4-5 centuries. Practically ceases to law-minded activity of lawyers.

Legislative functions are entirely concentrated in the hands of emperors whose acts become the main source of law. However, at this time work was carried out on streamlining and systematization of Rome's rights. At the end of the 3rd early 4 centuries. Partial collections of legislation appeared, and in 436 at Feodosia II, the Official Code of Imperial Constitutions was compiled. A comprehensive systematization of Rome's right occurred after the fall of the Western Roman Empire under the Byzantine Emperor Justinian.

6.5. Historical science of ancient Rome.

The Roman historical tradition had its basis for Annala. According to Roman legend, almost from the middle of the 5th century. BC e. In Rome, there were so-called pontiff tables; The Supreme Priest was led by the years of recordings of the most important events that were entered on the "white boards" and exhibited for general information at the house. At first, this custom was associated with the duty of priests to regulate the calendar (which was not firmly fixed); The records were made very primitively, but gradually the number of rubrics in them increased and, in addition to information about wars and natural disasters, there were reports of domestic events, about the activities of the Senate, on the results of the elections, etc. These tables became as if the chronological ease of ancient Roman chronicle. About 130 BC e. By order of the Supreme Palion of P. Muta, the scene was published a summary of all weather records, starting with the founding of Rome (in 80 books) called "Big Annals".

The literary processing of official annals and family chronicles of noble childbirth began in 3 V. BC e. and is associated with the spread of Hellenistic cultural influences in Rome. Early Roman historians are customary to call Annalists, and they are divided into elder, medium and younger. Quint Fabi Pictitor, the author of the Annals written in the Greek "Annals", is considered by the Roman Annalystik's Roman, the author of Rome from the legendary times until the end of the 2nd Punic War. The average annalists used mainly the same sources as the elders. Junior Annalism as a special genre and direction arose in the rash era (2 V. BC. E.). If the elders and the average annalists were engaged in a fairly primitive, but conscientious processing of chronicles and chronicles, posing by the history of Rome from patriotic positions, then for younger Annalists the story turned into a section of rhetoric and in the instrument of political struggle. In the interests of one or another political group, they did not stop before the conscious embellishment, and sometimes direct distortion of events, developing a number of techniques (repetition of events, borrowing from Greek history, etc.).

The genru of historical and memoir literature includes first of all the "Notes on the Gallery War" and "Note about the Civil War", Julia Caesar, in which a few embellished, but a fairly reliable statement of the course of these wars. To the genre of historical monograph belongs to the works of mercies "On the conspiracy of a cylinder" and "about the Yugurystaya War". Of the numerous biographies drawn up by the historian Cornelius, only two biographies of Roman figures are preserved - the attic and the Katon of the older and 23 biographies of the commander of "inrogenous peoples".

The Epoch of the Empire received further development of the artistic and didactic direction. In the Epoch of the Empire at the beginning of the 2nd century. n. e. Received a development historical and biographical genre

The history of Rome was devoted to the works of Greek historians of the 2nd half of the 2nd century. Appiana and Dion Cassia.

In the era of the Late Empire, Christian historiography was developed and developed.

6.6. Literature of ancient Rome.

The most ancient monuments of Roman artistic literature (5-4 centuries. BC. Er) are not preserved. According to later testimonies, the lyrics in them were represented by ritual songs (prayer, wedding, funeral): Epos - "fellow songs" about the exploits of Roman heroes; drama - musical ideas developed from choral songs (fencerin), and farce scenes (Atellians); Prose - oratorical speeches, texts of laws and chronicles (Annals). The first step from the oral literature to the written literature did at the turn of 4-3 centuries. BC e. Consul Appia Claudius, who recorded his speeches and made up under his name a collection of moral centilities in verses.

In 3-2 centuries. BC e. Rome subjugated most of the Greek-Public Mediterranean and has undergone a powerful influence of a more developed Greek culture. During this period, Roman literature gradually mastered all the main genres of Greek literature; National Epos; Roman comedy and tragedy; Specific Roman genre of sature (poetic scenes on free topics); By the end of the 2nd century. BC e. The first works of Roman lyrics appeared. Translated to the Latin language "Odyssey".

In the 1st half of 1 c. BC e. Greek culture was finally mastered by Rome and became the basis of the highest flourishing of Roman literature. The new culture went beyond the limits of aristocratic circles and spread in the middle layers of the population through ritiation schools and popular philosophical treatises and dialogues. In the situation of public contradictions lost the importance of genres, designed for a wide and homogeneous audience (EPOS, drama); Received eloquence and poetry. The central figure in the art of eloquence is Cicero.

During the formation of the empire (2nd half of the 1st century BC), Augustus paid special attention to the organization of public opinion, attracted the best writers of his time.

Poetry dominated the literature of the Epoch: the ideal of a person combining philosophy and verbal art, for Cicero embodied in the speaker, for Horace ("Science of Poetry") - in the poet. Prose is moving into the background: eloquence in the conditions of the monarchy lost importance, the historic genre in the works of Tita Libya climbed with epic poetry.

During the flourishing period and crisis of the Empire (1-3 centuries. N. E.), Roman culture developed in parallel with Greek, but already quite independently. The spread of culture was captured not only by Rome and Italy, but also the provinces. However, the social importance of literature in the new conditions fell, its ideological content or was powered by opposition sentiments, or was reduced to official cheegelism. Literature gradually degenerated into the self-sustaining style game; According to the nature of these stylistic experiments, three stages can be distinguished in this period. The first stage (1 half is the middle of the 1st century. N. E.) - the domination of "new style", developed in ritiation schools, a centational, spectacular and catchy. The second stage (end 1 - beginning of 2 centuries. N. E.) - This is a reaction to the "new style", the domination of neoclassicism, the revival of the "Golden Age" style. The third stage (2 is the beginning of 3 centuries) - the domination of Archaizma: the rapid revival of Greek literature in the Roman Empire pushes Latin literature on the background.

In the period of 4-5 centuries. Christian literature is put forward to the fore. Now she absorbed the literary technique of Roman rhetoric and poetry. The works of large artistic value - the sermon and the hymns of Amvrosia, the letters of Jerome and especially the "confession" of Augustine, opening for the literature a psychological depth, not affordable antiquity. Retreated by the authors who continued the pagan literary traditions.

Literature gradually closed within individual provinces, and then separate barbaric kingdoms. By the end of the 6th century. The traditions of ancient literary forms and ancient cultural heritage are quickly weak and come to no. There is a band of the so-called "dark centuries" - the first stage of the Latin literature of the Middle Ages.

6.7 Theater.

The emergence of theatrical art in Rome is associated with the festivities of harvesting, the participants of which performed comic, coarse songs in the form of dialogue - fencens. The further development of these admissions of the dramatic action of steel Sature - household comic scenes, which included dialogue, singing, music and dancing. Probably about 300 BC e. A folk improvisational comedy appeared - Atellian, a distinctive feature of which was the presence of 4 permanent characters-masks. The Atellians were played at the beginning of young Roman citizens and only later - actors-professionals. From the end of the 3rd. BC e. Recompensable to another type of folk ideas - mime. The new period in the history of the Roman theater is associated with the production of the Greek-Vyvolpotnik Libya Andronik of the first drama (240 BC), which is based on the Greek original. In Rome, tragedies and comedies began to be put in the Greek samples. Palliata is a big success in the audience, which was the processing of a new attic comedy. In the 2nd early 1 centuries. BC e. Togat came to change Palliate, in which the life of Roman citizens was depicted, mainly from the lower layers of the population. At the beginning of 1 c. BC e. Togatu gave way to literary treated Atellne, which, in turn, in the middle of 1 century. BC e. It was pushed by a literary treated mime.

Theatrical performances in Rome were arranged during the annual public holidays: in Roman (September), Plebee (November) and Apollonov (July) games, Megalessias (April), flora (April - May). The performances were also given in connection with the triumphal and funeral games, when choosing senior officials, etc. Initially, the presentation took place near the Temple of the Divine, in honor of which the games were arranged. Permanent theater buildings were not. The first stone theater was built by Pompey in 55-52 BC. e. At the end of 1 c. BC e. Another 2 stone theaters were built - Marcello and Balb.

Roman actors took place from the environment of freeds or slaves and occupied a low social situation. They combined into troupes led by the owner, which, by agreement with the Magistrate, organized submissions, distributed cash remuneration and often performed the main roles. In 3-2 centuries. BC e. The actors played, as a rule, without a mask, which became used about 1 century. BC e.; This later mask penetration on the Roman scene favored the development of acting art. Women's roles were performed by men. The actor-tragic Esop and comic actor of Russia was especially nominated to the last century of the republic.

In the era of the Empire, the presentation was made more often, however, they began to be mainly entertaining, entertainment; On the stage platform, detachments of the cavalry, infantry appeared, the processions of prisoners, performances of rare wild animals, etc. In 1-2 centuries. n. e. In the execution of the tragedy, the vocal skill of the actor was put forward. Popularity was popular with a literary treated Atellian, which sometimes contained sharp hints of political events. Especially great success had a pantomim - solo dramatic dance (usually on the mythological plot), accompanied by music and singing the choir, and pyrrhia, who performed the ensemble of dancers and dancers; The main attention was paid to the luxurious scenery and diverse stage effects. Establishly a great success was, all other views of the Late Empire, except for the Late Empire, except for dance. From a small household scene, he turned into a large play (built mainly on improvisation), a brilliant enforcement spectacle with an entertaining and often confusing plot, with a significant number of actors. Circus performances and boys of gladiators, arranged in the Coliseum and other amphitheaters used even greater popularity. The circus and amphitheaters also showed the scenes of the martial arts of the hunter with a beast or mass hunting. The staging of marine battles, so-called Navaichi. The decay of the art drama, addiction to bloody spectacles, the heavy legal conditions of the life of the actors testified to the degradation of the theater culture of the Empire's era.

The Roman Theater and above all dramaturgy played a big role in the development of the world theater. Outstanding playwrights, starting with the Renaissance, constantly apply to the Roman drama, perceiving the humanistic traditions of ancient culture through it. The Rome Theater also had a great influence on theatrical architecture.

6.8 Ancient Rome Music.

In the music of Rome, developed under the influence of Hellenistic culture, there were musical and poetic genres associated with life: triumphal songs (victory), wedding, drinking, remembered, often accompanied by the game in Tibi. The essential reservoir of the ancient Roman musical culture was represented by the Saliyev and Arvaal brothers. At the festivities of Saliyev was performed by a kind of military dance game. The festivities of the Arvaal brothers were devoted to the crop; Preserved prayers, famous anthem brothers.

Rome's musical life, especially the period of the empire, was different, performers from many countries were flocked in the capital. Poetry and music were closely connected. Poetic works, including ODY Horace, Ecloga Vergil, Ovid's poems, sang accompanied by stringed plug-in tools. The Roman Drama introduced the musical numbers of a recitative character that occurred under the accompaniment of Tibiya. For the performance of classical music, along with Kifaroy and Avlin, the Tools of the type of harp were used: Psalterium, Trigonon (Triangular Harp), Sambik, less often - species of the Plumkova Lyra (Bbitatos, Pectisi, Magadis). At the festivals in honor of God Vakha - Vakhanalia - Kimvala and other shock-noise tools sounded. Roman aristocracy acquired for its palaces and villas water bodies - hydraulos. A significant role in the development of ancient Roman instrumental music belongs to theatrical genre of the pantomime - a kind of "Pantomimic Suit", who performed a soloist dancer under the singing of the choir (Greek texts) and the Accompanitor of the Orchestra. With military legions, there were huge brass orchestras, which included buccins (curved horns), tubes (straight pipes) and other metal tools.

Huge choral ensembles performed in the circus and theaters of the Roman Empire, often with lush instrumental support. By the end of 1 c. n. e. The emperor Domitsian founded the "Capitol competition", in which, along with poets, singers and musicians participated. Big success had public concerts of virtuosos. Emperor Nero introduced the so-called "Greek competition", where he spoke as a poet, singer and Kifed. In noble families, singing and the game on kifare trained children. The profession of music teacher, dance was especially honorable and popular.

6.9 Architecture, visual and decorative and applied art.

The art of Rome is the last, the final stage in the development of ancient artistic culture. For Roman, art was one of the means of a reasonable organization of life; Therefore, in Rome, the leading place was taken by architecture, engineering searches, distinguished by interest in the specific personality sculptural portrait, historical relief, thoroughly narrowing about the acts of citizens and rulers. The real element prevails in ancient Roman art above the fiction, and the narrative start over the philosophical generalization. In addition, Rome accomplished a clear division of art for the official and responsible requests of a private consumer. Official art played an important role in Roman politics, being an active form of approval of state ideology in conquered areas. Particularly great was the importance of architecture that combined ideological functions with the organization of public household; In Roman construction practice, a system of constructive, planning and composite techniques has developed.

In the oldest period, the art of Rome developed in the framework of the average national archaeological cultures of the Epoch of Iron. At the time of the formation of the formation of ancient Roman artistic culture itself (8-4 centuries BC), Roman architecture experienced a fundamental effect of Etruscan, in which it borrowed high construction techniques and the initial types of a number of structures. Etruscan features of the ancient temples: three-inclusive kella, submission, emphasis of the main facade of the portico and the staircase - the presence of the characteristic features of the Roman cult architecture. Closely related to the art of Etruscans and the earliest samples of ancient Roman painting, as well as decorative and applied arts.

During the Punic Wars and the Late republic, the features of practicality and rationality prevailed in art, however, the specifically Roman rigor of the style was sometimes combined with the sophistication, inspired by the art of the Great Greek and the captured by the Romans of East Greek cities. The architecture of this time is characterized by wide town planning activities, rectangular, repeating the breakdown of military camp planning schemes, based on 2 main highways - "Cardo" (from north to south) and "Dekumanus" (from the east to the west). As the composition of the forum is established, the most important principles of the planning decision of the ancient Roman complexes were made: a symmetry, axial construction, fascination of the main building and a device of lifting to it from a solemn entrance to the site. In residential architecture, the type of atrium house developed, the center of the composition of which is 2 V. BC e. The garden of the peristyle, testifying to nature, unusually increased with the urbanization of an ancient society. The trends towards the synthesis of planning solutions with nature found an expression in the country villas, often picticially located on the slopes of the hills. The magnificence of aristocratic housing is the ordinary building of urban quarters of strokes. CO 2 V. BC e. The use of concrete not only simplified and reduced the laying of massive carrying structures, but also ensured the flexibility and variety of their form, created opportunities for the construction of buildings that included large indoor premises. For 2 - 1st half of 1 centuries. BC e. The most important types of Roman structures were completed and improved: basilica, thermals, various spectacular structures, majestic engineering buildings (arched bridges, water pipelines, warehouses).

In the visual art of 3-1 centuries. BC e. Portrait statues and busts are widely spread, genetically associated with Etruscan plastics and distinguished by underlined structurality and the severity of the figurative structure; Along with the official portrait sculpture, adorned by the city, portraits were created on private orders set in homes or tomb. During the period of the republic, historical reliefs were also appeared, where the household attitudes that bordered with the ordinance were combined with mythological elements. In the late republican sculpture, an Hellenizing direction developed, coping the Greek statues has acquired a wide range. An important area of \u200b\u200bartistic culture of this era was monumental-decorative painting; If for the so-called first, or "inlaid" style (2nd half 2 - the beginning of 1 centuries. BC. er) is characteristic of the imitation of the wall masonry, then in the second, or "architectural-promising", style (80-30 -Bh. BC. E.) The center of the wall turned into a promising written as the Edikul, framed by the landscape, genre or mythological scene. The art of mosaic and glyptics (hemma from solid rocks semi-precious stones) has also developed.

The highest achievements of the Ancient Roman architecture refer to the period of the heyday of the Empire (20th. 1 V. BC. E. - 2 V. N. E.). Distinctive features of the buildings of this time - the monumental plasticity of mighty masses, the dominant role of the arches and the derivatives from her forms (arch, dome), huge, dynamically coented spaces of interiors or open premises, a quickly improved cladding of concrete walls by stone and bricks with increasingly abundant engagement of marble, Wide use of painting and sculpture. A specific feature of the mature Ancient Roman architecture is becoming the so-called order of arcade (the system of stuck orders imposed on the wall cutting on the arches), which attached to the facilities of the magnificent scale. The architecture becomes increasingly becoming a means of glorifying the identity of the emperor and the propaganda of the power of the empire. The dominant type of architectural memorable monument is the Arch Triumphal, and the tombstones, in the republican era, modest on scale, are transformed into large, sometimes grand facilities. By the middle of 1 century. Intected a lot to the magnificent representativeness of architectural compositions. With flavia, the largest of the ancient Roman amphitheatres - the Colosseum is also being built, with Trachana - the most developed and complex from the forums of Rome, with Adriana, the grand dome building of the ancient world - Pantheon. Starting from the era of Adrian in the architecture, there was a fracture towards the exquisite complication of the image, partly related to the influence of the art of the Hellenistic East.

In the official sculpture of the early Empire, idealizing trends increased and partly smoothed individual features of portrayed, which loved to underline the masters of the Republican era. At the same time, black-free contrasts are introduced into the works, elements of motion, refined plastic development. If the time of Tranah was marked by the return to the heroically harsh style of the republic, then during the reign of Adrian and Antonins, the search for emotional expressiveness and psychological depth of the image were intensified. The historical reliefs of the Imperial Rome were originally noted by the dimension of composite rhythms and the restraint of the plastic language; The features of painting, stressful dynamics, invented in the reliefs of the Times of Flaviev, are especially characteristic of the period of trayan, when the type of battle relief was evolved. The impact of Greco-Hellenistic traditions reached apogee during the Adrian period, when the schools of the copies of the ancient Greek plastics have developed particularly intensive activities. In decorative painting to 63, the so-called third style prevailed (light, graphic patterns and small plot patterns, located against the background of extensive free spaces). He came to replace the fourth style, or the style of "fantastic architecture" (complex, illusory-spatial architectural compositions). Multiplicity of constructions, the complexity of architectural and landscape backgrounds is also characteristic of a mosaic, whose palette is enriched with a smalt diverse shades; CO 2 V. A black and white stone mosaic also spread. In the decorative and applied art, the era of the Empire was especially distinguished by the works of trade, "red-headed" ceramics with embossed decor, glass products, gems, where the alternating layers of semi-precious stones were picturesquely compared.

During the decline of the Empire (3-4 centuries) in the ancient Roman art, the features of the inner don is manifested. For architecture of this period, an unusually large scale of structures, love for magnificent effects, luxury decoration and restless plastic walls are characteristic. Construction activities turned out mainly in the provinces where new forums were erected, gigantic temple complexes.

In the Laterimsk sculptural portrait, interest in reliable transmission of human bodily appearance is lost: external features are interpreted increasingly in total, and at the end of 3-4 centuries. A frozen face contrasts sharply with a pathetic view of widely open eyes. The elements of the convention and stylization in the sculpture of pore testify to the increased influence of the art of oriental provinces. Among art products 3-4 centuries. Portrait miniatures are highlighted on gold foil placed between two layers of glass, marble sarcophages with plot reliefs, in which from 3 V. He got the spread of Christian themes. With the Christian cult of the painting of the catacomo, the style of which for 2-4 centuries is connected. Evolved towards more and greater flatness and graphics. The artistic forms performed in the Lateryryry art, fulfilled intense spiritual expression, anticipated the artistic culture of the European Middle Ages.

See Appendix No. 6

Conclusion

History - the movement of society in time. History appears as the past of human society, the retrospective development of which opens a person's historical nature of modernity. Modernity grows continuously from the past and, fulfilling its historical mission, herself goes into the past. The dynamic unity of the past and the present discloses history as a crime or implementation of a certain goal ("progress of civilization", etc.). The story forms a filling time meaning; From abstract calendar time serving a dating or measuring the duration of processes, historical time is distinguished by meaningful certainty. It can be more, then less saturated historical events, can flow, then slower, then faster - depending on the rate of historical transformations, it may be the time of heroes, the time of unfulfilled hopes, or not at all historical time. A comparative analysis of various cultures reveals a variety of ideas about the history of ancient civilizations. In particular, if in societies charged to development, historical time is understood as the current one from the present in the present, then in the historical consciousness of traditional societies the past is ahead of the present - as a sample to which it should be as close as possible. Moreover, it is found that the very idea of \u200b\u200bhistorical development is peculiar only by civilized societies that appeared for the first time in 4 millennia BC.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Mathieu M. E. Ancient Egyptian myths - M. - L., 1956
2. Turaev B.A. God is Leipzig, 1898.
3. Mythology. Encyclopedia - M.: Belfax, 2002
4. S. Kramer "Mythology Sumer and Akkada" - M.: Enlightenment, 1977
5. Internet encyclopedia "Circlevet" - M. 2000
6. Queen K. Antique mythology. Encyclopedia - St. Petersburg, 2004
7. Great Soviet Encyclopedia. The third edition - M. Ed. Soviet Encyclopedia 1969 - 1978 in 30 volumes.
8. A brief dictionary of foreign words - M. Ed. Russian Language, 1987
9. Legends and myths of ancient Egypt, - M.: Summer Garden, 2001
10. N.A.Kun legends and legends of ancient Greece and ancient Rome - M.Isd. True, 1988.
11. Harenberg B. Chronicle of mankind is a big encyclopedia. M., 1994.
12. Pavlova TP Culturalology - M., 2006

Appendix No. 1.

Image of gods and goddesses in ancient Egypt

God God

Appendix No. 2.

Images of Sumerian Gods

Gods au (left) and Enlil. God Enki with bird anzud

Babylonian stone approx. XXIII BC.

1120 BC

Gods uhu and innana

Bas-relief approx. XXIII BC.

Appendix No. 3.

Legendary wonders of Babylonia

Hanging gardens of Babylon

Babylonian tower

Appendix No. 4.

One of the 7 Wonders of the World - Statue of Zeus in Olympia

Appendix No. 5.

Image of Greek and Roman gods

Dionysis "Athens and Perseus, Zeus-Rublzzzts

Vase Killing Gorgon "(Ancient Greece)

OK.400G. BC. (Ancient Greece)

The goddess of the land "Favn". Bronze "Birth of Aphrodite"

Tellus "(Ancient Rome) (Ancient Greece)

(Ancient Rome)

Appendix No. 6.

Architecture of ancient Rome

Arch Constantine. Colosseum ruins

315 G.N.E. Forum

Pantheon Square Capitolia

Publ.: Epos about Gilgamesh ("On everything I see"), per. from Akkadsky, M. - L., 1961; Sumerian heroic epos, "Herald of Ancient History", 1964, No. 3.

This ancient agricultural civilization began to form in 4 V. BC. The history of the state and culture of Egypt is divided into several periods: early, ancient, average and new kingdom. Early Egypt was the time of formation of a slave-ownership and a despotic state, during which a religious belief characteristic of the ancient Egyptians was formed: the cult of nature and ancestors, astral and illuminated cults, fetishism, totemism, animism and magic. In cult construction, a stone began to be widely used. The ancient and middle kingdom were characterized by the strengthening and centralization of the bureaucratic apparatus of the Board, the strengthening of the power of Egypt and its desire to expand their influence on neighboring peoples. In cultural development, this is the era of construction, which is surprising for the sizes of pharaohs, such as Heops and others, the creation of unique monuments of art, such as pharaoh sphinxes, portrait relief on the tree. About the grand is the largest of the Egyptian pyramids - the pyramids of Heops, which does not have equal among the stone structures of the whole world, they say its dimensions: 146m - height, and the length of the base of each of the 4 faces is 230m. The new kingdom was the last period of the external activity of Egypt, when he led the war in Asia and North Africa. At this time, the architecture of the temples especially flourished.

Among the greatest achievements of the artistic creativity of this period, the image of Queen Nefertiti from the sculptural workshop in Achetaton, the Golden Mask of Pharaoh Tutankhamon and the painting of the tombs in the valley of the kings near Five. They continued the tradition of the head and feet of the figure in the profile, characteristic of the Ancient East, and torso in the FAS. This tradition disappears in the final period of the fall of Egypt, when he conquers Persia. In the boundaries of a peculiar worldview, the religious and mythological system of the ancient Egyptians on the construction of the world was formed. All many fragmented religions were gradually reduced to a certain divine hierarchy, where the cult of the RA god (most important among all the deities) merged with cults of other gods. In ancient Egypt, where only Pharaoh standing on society, all other citizens were considered equal to the Creator and the law, women were equal to men. Belief in the individual immortality gave rise to such a phenomenon in the culture of ancient Egyptians, as the desire to leave a memory of themselves in the centuries, they built tomb monuments labeled by hieroglyphs. If in the era of the ancient kingdom, only Pharaohs could enter the "kingdom of the dead", while building a pyramid, then since the time of the Middle Kingdom, everyone had the right to build his own tomb. In ancient Egypt, all special knowledge was concentrated by a small group of people, which was the caste of priests ruling in society. The priests were effectively used to control the masses of astronomical observations accumulated over times, opening the frequency of solar eclipses and learning them to foresee. In ancient Egypt, for the first time in the world, practical medicine has emerged, a certain development has reached a decimal account in arithmetic. The ancient Egyptians also owned some elite knowledge in algebra.

The opening of the hieroglyphs as writing contributed to the development of such genres of literature as myths, fairy tales, bikes, prayers, hymns, crying, epitaph, story, love lyrics and even philosophical dialogues and political treatises, a religious drama and a secular theater appear later. The rapid development of art in ancient Egyptian society led to the emergence of the 1st in the world in writing aesthetic and philosophical reflections. It was here for the first time in the history of world culture a humanism arose. The cultural legacy of the ancient Egypt played its historical role in the formation and development of world culture.

Culture of ancient India

Early Indian civilization was created by the ancient local population of Northern India in 3 V. BC. Its Centers of Harapp and Mohenjo Daro (now Pakistan) supported links with Mesopotamia, Central and Central Asian countries. Residents of these places have achieved high mastery, especially in the image of small forms (figurines, engraving); Their amazing achievement was a water supply system and sewage system, which did not have any other ancient cultures. They created their original not yet decrypted writing. A bright feature of the Harapp culture was her unusual conservatism: for centuries, the location of the streets of the Old Indian seats did not change, and new houses were built on the places of old. The characteristic feature of the culture of India is that we meet with numerous religions that interact with each other. Among them are the main - brahmanism and its forms of Hinduism and Jainism, Buddhism and Islam. The present heyday, Ancientindian culture reached in the Epoch of "Rigvety" - a large collection of religious hymns, magic spells and ritual customs created by the priests of the Aryan tribes, which appeared in India after the T. N. "Great Resettlement of Peoples."

At the same time, brahmanism was formed as a kind of synthesis of beliefs of Indo-Arya and religious ideas of the previous local North Indian population. An Indian phenomenon is the custom system in the Rig Hedi Epoch. For the first time, theoretically substantiated moral and legal motives for the division of Indian society into four main "Varna": priests, warriors, progress-agriculties and servants. A whole system of life regulations and behavior of each Varna was developed. According to this, marriage was considered to be legitimate only within one Varna. The result of such relations between people was the following separation of Varna to an even greater number of small castes. The formation of castes is the total of a thousand-year evolution of interaction between different racial and ethnic groups in a single cultural system of an ancient Indian society, where a very complex social structure was formed. Olympus in Hinduism symbolizes Brahma's Trinity, Vishnu and Shiva, which represents the cosmic forces of creation, savings and destruction. A peculiar reaction of the population, not belonging to the caustes of priests and speaking against the inequality of Cast, was Buddhism. According to the teachings of Buddhism, the human life mission is to achieve Nirvana.

Islam was brightly different from all previous religious views. First of all, the Muslim tribes owned military technology and a strong political system, but their main believer relied on the concept of "grouped fraternity", which united deep respect for all those who took this faith. All Indian literature, both religious and secular, filled with hints of sexual content and symbolism of open erotic descriptions. In the Middle Ages, the process of cosmic creation itself was depicted as the marriage alliance of God and the goddess, so the figures on the walls of the temples were depicted in various poses. In the culture of ancient India, the originality of cultural trends and philosophical thought is closely related. Philosophical views that have separated a religious separation of light are included in brahmanism, Jainism, Hinduism and Buddhism. All philosophical views played an important role not only in the history of culture of India, a and global philosophy and science. They are closely related to the achievements of various industries of Old Indian science - mathematics, astronomy, medicine and environmental education. It is known that Indian scientists in the distant past were ahead of some discoveries made by European scientists only in the Renaissance era or at the present time. The artistic culture of an ancient Indian society is inextricably linked with traditional religious and philosophical systems for it.

The ideas characteristic of the religious beliefs of the ancient Indians inspired creativity in architecture, culture and painting. For descendants, the huge statues of Buddha, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, the cat remained for the descendants. cause surprise with their colossal sizes. The perception of light through the spiritual prism of the beliefs of these religions is the frescoes of cave temples. Ajans and rock paintings in Ellora temples, a cat. Combine the traditions of North. and south. Type of structure of temples in dr. India. In some details of these art monuments, the influence of art and others are also felt. Vost. Civilizations. This was due to the location of India on the Great Silk Road, on the cat. Not only walked caravans with goods, but also a cultural exchange took place. In this process, India played a cultural role, expanding the civilized influence of Buddhism on others. countries.

Culture dr. China.

The most trees. A period of Chinese civilization is the era of the essence of the state of Shan, a slave owner in the Valley of the Juanhe River. Her capital was the city of Shan, the giving Naz. The country and the ruling dynasty of the kings. Later, she was won by others. Chinese tribes, called. New kingdom Zhou. Subsequently, it broke up on five independent principalities. Already in Epoch, the ideographic writing was opened, the cat. By long-term improvement, turned into hieroglyphic calligraphy, and was also compiled in the main features of the monthly calendar. During the early imperial era of DR. K. introduced into the world. Culture Such discoveries as a compass and speedometer, seismograph. Later, typography and powder were invented. It is in K. in the field of writing and typography opened paper and a moving font, and in military equipment - guns and stirrups. Mechanical was also invented. The clock has happened. Improvements in the region Shelkotroaty.

In mat-ke, an outstanding Chinese achievement was the use of decimal fractions and blank positions to designate 0, calculating the number P, the opening of the method of solving equations with two and three unknowns. Trees. The Chinese were educated astronomers, amounted to one of the first star cards in the world. Since the ancient Chinese communion was agricultural, centralized bureaucracy was to solve complex technical issues related primarily to the use and protection of water resources, therefore, high development in others. K. reached astronomy, knowledge of calendar calculations and astrological forecasts, mat-ka, physics and hydraulic engineering in their engineering use. The construction of forts, directed primarily to the protection of the external borders of the Empire, first of all, was also important to protect the external borders of the empire.

Chinese builders became famous for grandiose facilities - the Great Chinese Wall and the Great Channel. Chinese medicine for 3 thousand years has reached many sharp. In dr. K. For the first time, "Pharmacology" was written, for the first time began to conduct surgical operations with drug use. The funds were applied for the first time and described in the literature methods for treatment with acupuncture, cavity and massage. Ancient Chinese thinkers and Lekari have developed the original doctrine of "vital energy". Based on this teaching, a F-F-F-F-F-F-F-F-F-Profit System "Wushu", which gave the beginning of the treatment of therapeutic gymnastics, as well as the art of self-defense "Kung Fu". Peculiarity of spiritual culture dr. K. is largely due to a phenomenon known in the world as "Chinese ceremony". These strictly fixed stereotypes of ethical-ritual norms of behavior and thinking are based on the cult of antiquity. The place of cult of the gods took the cult of real clan and family ancestors. And those gods, the cult of which preserved, lost the smallest similarity with people, becoming abstract deities-symbols, for example. Sky.

Confucianism is the most important place in Chinese spiritual culture - ethical and political. The doctrine of the F-F-F-idealist Confucius. His ideal is a highly oral man based on the traditions of wise ancestors. The teaching was shared in the "highest" and "lower" and demanded from each fulfillment of obligations assigned to him. Confucianism played a significant role in the development of Chinese state and functioning political. Culture of the Imperial China. GL The force opposed to the Confucianism in politics and ethics was Leather. The legists, being realistic, the basis of their doctrine put the law, strength and authority cat. must be supported by cruel punishments. Confucianism made a bet on morality and trees. Tradition, whereas Leather put the administrative regulations for the first place. Under the influence of characteristic of the trees. Chinese society of religious, ethical and f-f-f-f-f-f-and socio-polit. Looks developed and all his classic. Lit-ra. Already in the earliest poetic compilation of others. K., the famous "Book of Songs", the cat. A long time was created on the basis of folk songs, sacred mess and trees. Hymfs, fells of ancestors. In 2-3VV. In K. Buddhism comes, the cat. Sufficiently influenced by the traditional Chinese culture, it was manifested in lit-re, figurative art and, especially in the Arakter. Buddhism existed in K. Read 2 Millennium, changed noticeably in the process of adaptation to a specific Chinese civilization. Based on the synthesis of his ideas with Confucian pragmatism in K., Chan Buddhism arose, a cat. Subsequently, it was distributed in Japan and received a kind of Zen Buddhism. The most transformation of Buddhism was manifested in their own. Chinese art, cat. How anywhere in the world relied on tradition. The Chinese have not accepted the idea of \u200b\u200bthe ind. Buddhas created their own image. The same thing happened with the Arakster temples. A significant role in Chinese culture was played by Taoism, with a cat. Configured the development of science and technology dr. K. A special role in cultural contacts K. With the outside world played the "Great Silk Road", the cat. Not only trade, but also the cultural exchange of K. with other countries, which influenced Chinese culture.

Hellenic culture

Ellina worshiped deities representing different forces of nature, public strength and phenomena, the heroes - the mythical ancestors of tribes and childbirth, founders of cities. The myths preserved the layers of different eras - from an ancient worship of plants and animals to anthropomorphism - man deified, representing gods in the images of young, beautiful and immortal people. A significant place in Greek mythology occupied the legends about the heroes - children of gods and mortals. Mythology has become a significant element of Greek culture, on the basis of which literature, philosophy, science developed later. The basis of literary education was the works of Homer, Hesiod, Ezopa. One of the largest acquisitions of the culture dr. C. There are works of Homer "Iliad" and "Odyssey", a lyrics arose, one of the first lire. Poets are considered archives. On Lesbos, Sappo worked, Cat creativity. It was the top lyrics dr. C. In 7B BC. Appears from stone. GL This is temples.

In the process of formation of gr. Arakters arise 3 main directions: Dorician (used mainly on the peloponnese, it is characterized by simplicity and severity of forms), ionic (lightness, harness, decorativeness), Corinthian (refinement). Temples arch. Period: Apollo in Corinth and Gera in Pestum. In the sculpture of the arch. The primary place is the picture of the person. C. Hood is trying to master the right building of the person, learn to pass the movement. The human body was subjected to a thorough geometric study, as a result of a cat. The rules for the proportional ratio of its parts were established. Historians believe that the theorist of proportions is the sculptor polyclet. Anthropocentricity of ancient Greek culture involves the cult of the human body. The body's body was so great that the nudity did not make a feeling of smallestness cost the famous Athenian Beauty Frin, accused of committing a crime, reset his clothes before the judges, as they justified her with beauty. The human body has become a measure of all forms of Greek culture. Painting ch. arr. Known to us with vase paintings. In 6V. The black-phony painting dominates, on the yellow surface of black varnish shapes are depicted. At the end of 6V. There is a red-chicken painting when the figures remain in the color of clay, and the background is black and varnish. Developed dramaturgy. The emergence of c. Theater was associated with the cult of god Winemaking Dionysus. The actors performed in goat skins and therefore this genre was called "tragedy" ("Song Kozlov").

Famous playwrights were Eschil ("Crazy Prometheus"), Sofokl ("Antigron" and "King Edip"), Euripid ("Medea", "Electra"). From prosaic genres in the classic period, rhetoric flourishes - the ability to clearly express their thoughts, convincingly defend its position. Sculptors were mainly depicted gods. The most prominent sculptors were fidi, a polyclet and a lisipe (court sculptor A. Macedonian). The creation of Fidius was the statues of Athena in Parfenone and Zeus Olympic in Olympia. Policlet Chief Representative of the Peloponess School. The most famous sculpture of the master "Dorina", a young man with a spear. In 4v. BC. c. The sculpture leans towards the transfer of individual characteristics of the character of a person. In 5V. BC. - Time for fracture to c. Painting, transition to volume image. Greek agon is the struggle, the competition personified the characteristic features of the free Greek. The most striking expression of ancient agon was the famous Olympics. The origins of the first Olympics are lost in antiquity, but in 776. BC. It was on the marble board for the first time recorded the name of the winner in the race, and this year is considered the beginning of the historical period of the Olympic Games. The place of the Olympic festivals was the sacred grove of Altis.

In the famous temple of Zeus Olympic, a statue of God created by FIDIA and considered one of the seven wonders of the world. In the sacred grove, trade transactions, poets, speakers were concluded, and scientists performed in front of the audience, artists and vagateli represented their paintings and sculptures to the court. The state had the right to announce new laws here. Athenian academy, dedicated to the Athenian hero, the Academy became famous for the fact that he was later running with a torch. In Greek Agone, the dialectic (ability to lead a conversation). Greek culture is festive, externally colorful and spectacular. In the literature during the period of Hellenism, attention is growing towards a person. Enjoyed the success of the comedy. The rapid growth of cities, the desire of the rulers to glorify the power of their state-in promoted the development of the Arakter, especially the art of urban planning and art of art related to the decoration of buildings - mosaic, decorative sculpture, painted ceramics. Basilica, gymnasiums, stadiums, libraries, as well as the tsar's shops, residential buildings appeared. In the region Sculptures during this period existed 3 schools. 1. Rhodes school (drama). Sculptural groups "Laocoon" and "Fernese Bull". 2. Pergaman school. Sculptural frieze Altar Zeus and Athens in Pergama. 3. Alexandria school. The image of the goddess aphrodite. Great development reached painting, especially landscape. The culture of Hellenism has become the final stage in the development of culture dr. Greece.

Archaic period.

In the history of dr. C. 8-6V. BC. Characterized by large changes in the host. activities, social Life, culture. One of the largest acquisitions of the culture of the arch. The period is the works of Homer "Iliad" and "Odyssey". In 7-6VV. BC. arose gr. Lyrics, one of the first lire. Poets are considered archives. In the first floor. 6B. BC. On Lesbos, Sappo worked, Cat creativity. It was the top lyrics dr. C. In 8-6V. in dr. C. There was a rise of the sample lawsuit and the arakter. In 7B BC. Appears from stone. GL This is temples. In the process of formation of c. Arakters arise 3 main directions: Dorician (used mainly on the peloponnese, it is characterized by simplicity and severity of forms), ionic (lightness, harness, decorativeness), Corinthian (refinement). Temples arch. Period: Apollo in Corinth and Gera in Pestum. In the sculpture of the arch. The primary place is the picture of the person. C. Hood is trying to master the right building of the person, learn to pass the movement. Painting ch. arr. Known to us with vase paintings. In 6V. The black-phony painting dominates, on the yellow surface of black varnish shapes are depicted. At the end of 6V. There is a red-chicken painting when the figures remain in the color of clay, and the background is black and varnish. Generalization of knowledge about the environment. The world was the basis for the development of F-Fii. The founder of the Miletsky F-F-F-F-F-school was Fales, who believed that the first-base world is water, from the cat. Everything arises in the cat. Everything turns into. For the first time also considered "APIROON", uncertain, eternal matter, air, fire. Ancient F-F-F and Mathematics Pythagoras founded the F-F-F-F-F-F-school South. Italy. According to his F-Fii, the world consists of co-violent patterns, a cat. can be calculated. The merit of the Pythagoreans were the development of the theorems, the theory of music, built on numerical relations, the establishment of a number of col -n patterns in the world. The idealistic line in F-Fii, founded by the Pythagoreans, was continued by the Elaska F-F-F-F-F-school. Victory over the Persia Dala c. Full power in the Cre-Rye. Military prey, trade, the use of slave labor contributed to the development of all sectors of culture.

Classic period.

In cl. Period develops dramaturgy. The emergence of c. Theater was associated with the cult of god Winemaking Dionysus. The actors performed in goat skins and therefore this genre was called "tragedy" ("Song Kozlov"). The famous playwrights of this period were Eschil ("Crazy Prometheus"), Sofokl ("Antigona" and "King Edip"), Euripid ("Medea", "Electra"). From prosaic genres in the classic period, rhetoric flourishes - the ability to clearly express their thoughts, convincingly defend its position. Among the F-F-F-F-F-F-CL Problems. A period of 1 plan put forward an understanding of the essence and place of a person in the world, the consideration of the problems of being and primary acquisition of the world continues. Materialistic interpretation of the problem of primancy put forward democritus, developing the doctrine of atoms. Ancient Softers taught that "a person is a measure of all things," and the essence of things depends on their connection with the person. Socrates the path to achieving truth saw in self-knowledge. Plato to explain Genesis developed the theory about the existence of "ideas". Considerable attention was paid to the state issues, he proposed a project of an ideal policy that the F-Fa is managed. Aristotle made his contribution to F-Fiya, environmentaling, history, literature, state right, the basis of formal logic. Astronomy, medicine, geography, mechanics, history have developed. Contribution to medicine made ancient. Heal Hippocrat. C. claim in CL. The period has reached the highest development. Sculptors were mainly depicted gods. The most prominent sculptors were fidi, a polyclet and a lisipe (court sculptor A. Macedonian). The creation of Fidius was the statues of Athena in Parfenone and Zeus Olympic in Olympia. Policlet Chief Representative of the Peloponess School. The most famous sculpture of the master "Dorina", a young man with a spear. In 4v. BC. c. The sculpture leans towards the transfer of individual characteristics of the character of a person. In 5V. BC. - Time for fracture to c. Painting, transition to volume image. Damn gr. Culture Competition. C. Agon is the struggle, the competition personified the characteristic features of the free Greek. The most striking expression of ancient agon was the famous Olympics. In Greek Agone, Dialectics takes his beginning - the ability to lead a conversation.

Hellenism.

The period from the beginning of the campaign of A. Macedonian to the east before the conquest of the Roman Committee was named with Hellensky. It is characterized by the expansion of relationships and mutual influences of GR. and east. cultures. Having lost the polis limit, gr. Culture absorbed the vehicle. Al-you. These changes found their manifestation in religion, F-Fii, literature. There are new f-f-f-schools. The most famous in this period of the exercise of the Stoikov (founder of Zenon) and the philosophy of epicura (follower of democritus) are most famous. In the literature during the period of Hellenism, attention is growing towards a person. Enjoyed the success of the comedy. The rapid growth of cities, the desire of the rulers to glorify the power of their state-in promoted the development of Arakters, especially the art of urban planning and art related to the decoration of buildings - mosaic, decorative sculpture, painted ceramics .. Basilica, gymnasiums, stadiums, libraries, as well as plants kings, residential buildings. In the region Sculptures during this period existed 3 schools. 1. Rhodes school (drama). Sculptural groups "Laocoon" and "Fernese Bull". 2. Pergaman school. Sculptural frieze Altar Zeus and Athens in Pergamum. 3. Alexandria school. The image of the goddess aphrodite. Great development reached painting, especially landscape. The culture of Hellenism has become the final stage in the development of culture dr. Greece.

Ancient civilizations: Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, China, America.

Ancient civilizations in all their incorrect among themselves are still some unity in contrast to the previous states of society and culture.

The emergence and development of cities, writing, complication of social relations.

Antiquity civilization preserved from primitive society: dependence on nature, mythological forms of thinking, cult and rituals focused on natural cycles. The dependence of people from nature decreased. The main thing that marked the transition from the primarity to ancient civilizations was the beginning of the organized human production activity - "Agricultural Revolution".

The transition from the primariality to civilization is connected with a change in the nature of the interaction of people in society, with the birth of a new type of public relations caused by the growth of cities.

From a person, no simple repetition of adopted patterns of behavior was needed, but reflection, analysis of their own actions and states.

New opportunities for storing and transferring information gave writing.

Ancient civilizations excluded a stranger and despised the incomplete, and despised frankly and calmly, without resorting to hypocrisy or reservations. And at the same time, it was in the Lona of ancient civilizations that the principles of all-calovic unity and moral improvement of the individual, aware of the possibility of choice and responsibility, were born. These principles were established together with the emergence and development of world religions, which certainly assumed the involvement of believers who consciously choose this faith, and not belonging to her born. In the future, the world religions played the role of one of the factors of civilizational integration.

Culture of ancient Egypt.

Ancient Egypt is one of the oldest civilizations that arose in the northeast of the African continent along the lower flow of the Nile, where today the modern state of Egypt is located.

Among the achievements of the ancient Egyptians were a mining business, field geodesy and construction equipment; Mathematics, practical medicine, agriculture, shipbuilding, glass production technology, new forms in the literature. Egypt left a durable heritage. His art and architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities were exported to all corners of the world.

Egyptian despotus is a classic form of unlimited autocratic power.

Ancient Egyptian mythology is a set of Egyptian legends, the central place in which they occupy the main cycles: the creation of the Mira - the birth of the god of the RA Sun from the flower of the lotus, the first gods came out of the mouth, and people were out of tears.

The culture of Egypt arose in 4 thousand years before AD, before the formation of the state of Egypt consisted of nomov (individual areas). Pharaoh Aha (Greez Menes) in 3 thousand years BC. Combined Egypt into a single whole. He is the founder of the first pharaoh dynasty. A combination symbol is a double crown. Aha built the first capital (Memphis), since then the government was sacred, because Pharaoh - the son of the gods and his descendant carry Divine Blood. With Aha, there is a historical time in Egypt: 1. Epoch dr. Kingdom 30-23V BC. 2. The era of the middle kingdom is 22-17 V to AD. 3. New kingdom 16-6V BC.

Ancient kingdom. At this time, in Egypt, a centralized strong slave-owned state was formed, an economic, military-political and cultural flowering of the country was observed. An writing appears hieroglyphic (the first inscriptions economic, then prayer, cherry the Frenchman Shampolon), the first pyramid (Goser, Sosta from 5 steps), because of the pyramids there were sciences: mathematics, astronomy, geometry, medicine, the use of bricks begins.

Pyramids Giza. This ancient Egyptian necropolis consists of chefs, a slightly smaller pyramid of Hefren and relatively humble sizes of the pyramid of mekerin, as well as a number of less large accompanying buildings, known as the pyramids of the queens, sidewalks and the pyramids of the valley. Large Sphinx is located on the eastern side of the complex face east. Many scientists continue to believe that the Sphinx has a portrait resemblance to Hefren.

In the era of the middle kingdom, the city center became the city. The independence of the Nomov (regions) has increased, which caused the flourishing of local art schools. The pyramids have lost their grandeur. The rulers of the regions - nomarhi - now the tombs were built not at the foot of the royal pyramids, but in their possessions. There was a new form of royal burial - the rock career. Wooden statues of slaves are placed in them. Frequently depicting entire scenes (boat with rowers, a shepherd with a herd, warriors with weapons). The temples began to put the statues of the pharaohs intended for universal ferris. The memorial temples are often separated from the tombs, have an elongated axial composition, in them a considerable place is assigned to colonnades and porticities (Mentukotep 1 temple 1 in Deir-El Bahri).

The new kingdom is known to the greatest number of ancient Egyptian monuments the period of the heyday of the ancient Egyptian statehood and the creation of a large Egyptian "world" state.

OK. 1700 BC e. Egypt survived the invasion of Asian tribes - gixos. The time of their 150 years of dominion was a period of decline. Exile of gixos from the country in the beginning. 16th century BC e. marked the beginning of the era of the new kingdom, during which Egypt reached unprecedented power. Successful trips to Asia and the influx of wealth led to the exceptional luxury of the life of the Egyptian nobility of this time. Sigor, dramatic images of the era of the Middle Kingdom changed by the sophisticated-aristocratic. The desire to grace and decorative pomp (? Portraits of Pharaoh Amenhotep with the wife of Nefertiti)

The architecture obtained further development of the trend of the previous period. In the temple of Queen Hatshepsut in Deir-El Bahri, which is an architectural complex, partially chopped in the rocks, strict lines of cornices and protodoric columns contrast with its reasonable ordering with chaotic clefts of rocks.

Culture Mesopotamia

Civilization is a community of people united by fundamental values \u200b\u200band ideals. Signs of civilization: 1. Appearance of writing 2. The appearance of cities 3. The department of mental labor from the physical general in ancient civilizations: 1. El-you are primitive thinking (dependence on nature, mythological consciousness) 2. Beginning knowledge of nature Features of DR Eastern civilizations: 1. Disability. 2. The locality of the development process. 3. Economy. Political form - despotism. 4. The el-you of primitive thinking 5. The nature of the interaction of society and nature changes. The knowledge of nature begins. A person aware of himself a part is still, but already plays the role of the Creator. 6. Concentration of the population and economic activity in cities. 7. Complications of the social structure. Due to the emergence of new activities

Mesopotamia- Twire (Tiger and Ether, Iraq). Culture arose in 4 thousand years BC. Earth and everything belongs to the gods, people of their servants. The first cities-states: Urech, Lagash, Ur, Kish - are devoted to the gods. This is the birthplace of the harp. There are several civilizations:

Sumer. 4-3 tes years BC Create the first epic prnas: Epos about Gilgamesh (king of the city of Ur). The 60-riche measurement system, wheel, great astronomers and astrologers, the first gods of Mesopotamian Pantheon are invented: An (God sky), ki (goddess of land), Enlil (God of air, fate), Enki (God of waters and groundwater), Ishtar ( The goddess of love, Dimuzi (her husband is the god of dying and resurrection nature), C (God of the Moon, Shamash (Sun). Philosophy - live here and now. The afterlife, from which there is no refund. Architecture (no windows outside), Zikcurate temples ( The view of the Jossera Pyramid, but the entrance to the side, lined with tiles, colored paints, at the entrance of the lions). 3-4 children in the family.

Sumero-Acadian Nach3 - End of 3 thousand BC Civilization Sumer attracted wild tribes, constant raids. The Simit tribe of Amoron descended to the Sumer and dissolved in culture. The writing is improved, Suchmers are pictographic (Pictures), gradually turns into a clinley (wrote on clay with a stick). Lithuanian monuments, hymns of gods, myths, legends. Compiled 1st Library Catalog, 1st Medical Books, 1st Calendar, 1st Card (clay), Lira appears.

Babylon (in the lane gate) Nach - the end of 2 thousand years BC The main god is Marduk (God of War) - the patron saint of Babylon. Main architectural monuments: The Babylonian Tower - Zigarat Marduk (destroyed in 8 V to AD), the Mantic is developing (fortune-telling in animals and nature, the cult of water (this is a source of goodwill, bringing life, the cult of heavenly sick (the immutability of their movement was considered manifestation of Divine Will, a large development of mathematics, astronomy (lunar and sunny calendar).

Assyria 1 thousand years BC Babylon capture the Assyrians. This is the most Militianized state. Adjourn all culture. God's gods, but renamed. A distinctive feature: an image of the winged bulls, bearded men of warriors, military battles, violence against prisoners.

Culture of ancient India

Definition of civilization cm before

India from the ind river, first called Sindhu, then Hind, the local Hindi population. Periodization: 1. Ancient culture 25-18V BC. Doary period. 2. Vedic period Ser 2 thousand - 7 V to AD. 3. Buddhist period 6-3B BC 4. Classic period 2B BC. - 5V.

Poary culture (Dravidskaya). Dravids - local population, Australo-Negroid Race. Create 2 great civilizations at the Indian River - Harapp, Mohenjo Daro. High-level civilization. The cities on the principle of quadrangle did not have sharp corners separated by the streets. Jewelry. The deity in the lotus position in the state of meditation - proto Shiva. Yoga and Tantra - they are connected with women's cults). This culture dies mysteriously, the end coincides with the arrival of the new people - Aria (came from the terrius of Eastern Europe).

European race. Close language to our. Aria is noble. It is located near the River Gang - Vedas - the Sacred Books of Religious and Philosophical Content: Rig Veda, Sami-Veda, Atharva Veda, Ayur Veda, Vedic Lit-Ra - Upanishad. A custom system is introduced, varna (color, varnoous system). A) - Casta, Varna - Brahmanov (spiritual teachers) Color white (religious figures. B) - Kshatriya (warriors) - Raji, color - red. C) - Vyisya - all (wide sections of the population - farmers, merchants) The color is yellow. A and B was allowed to listen and study the Vedic Lithuan. G.) Shudras (servants) Color - black can not listen and read Vedic Lithuan. E) - untouchable - local population. 3 of the main god of the Creator: 1. Brahma - created the universe, 2. Vishnu is monitored in the order in the Universe 3. Shiva - fertilizing, burning. The population of India is divided into Vishnuitov (nature) and shivaitov (blood). The idea of \u200b\u200bVedic Lithing: the idea of \u200b\u200bthe victim - for everything we must pay, the sacrifice is the most expensive; The idea of \u200b\u200bkarma The law of reasons (actions, desires) and consequences (happiness or misfortune. Karma is the energy that has its vibration and color. Reincarnation - reincarnation, re-birth. Incarnation - the embodiment of God on Earth. Next stage of development of Vedic Li-Ry Brahmanism 15-7V BC. From 7V axial time - many religions appear, in India 2:

Buddhism is the first world religion. There was 7-6V BC. In North India, it is later distributed in Tibet, Mongolia, China, Japan and Southeast Asia. The Indian people - the Buddha teacher is not a name, this is a state of awakening or enlightenment, the name is Sithartha. This is a religion without God, all being consists of Dharmas (what holds molecules, atoms, the code of the universe). Life is a stream of Dharma, unstable dharma - Sansara, stable - Nirvana.

Trilakshin (three principles of Buddhism) 1. Lack of Atman (soul) in humans and the Creator, the task of Buddhist is to interrupt the existence of the soul. 2. All-emptiness, where there is nothing permanent. 3. Everything in this world is suffering. The essence of Buddhism - the world is suffering. Botchisatva prayed (this is the Buddha on Earth), in the later steps they began to deify Buddha. Sacred book - Titrian.

Vedic civilization - Indo-Aryan culture associated with the Vedas, the most early sources about the history of India.

The Buddhist period was in India the time of the crisis of the ancient Vedic religion, the keepers of which were priests.

Classic period The classical era is characterized by the final formation of a stable religious, community-caste and economic system of many possessions of opposing small dynasties, alternately creating fragile major powers of different coverage.

Culture of ancient China

Civilization is a community of people united by fundamental values \u200b\u200band ideals. Signs of civilization: 1. Appearance of writing 2. The appearance of cities 3. The department of mental labor from the physical general in ancient civilizations: 1. El-you are primitive thinking (dependence on nature, mythological consciousness) 2. Beginning knowledge of nature Features of DR Eastern civilizations: 1. Disability. 2. The locality of the development process. 3. Economy. Political form - despotism. 4. The el-you of primitive thinking 5. The nature of the interaction of society and nature changes. The knowledge of nature begins. A person aware of himself a part is still, but already plays the role of the Creator. 6. Concentration of the population and economic activity in cities. 7. Complications of the social structure. Due to the emergence of new activities

China's culture arose 3 thousand years BC. At the River Juanhe. The origin from the Divine ancestor of Juandi (Yellow man. The 1st cult was deified emperor - he is the son of the sky, the whole Chinese Empire is a subnet. Emperor - Wang - conductor between the world. The 2nd cult of the dead. The position of man in China's culture is not a king, And the sandbank, which between the sky and the earth. The task of man does not redo the world, but to fit into it. The symbol of the worldview is a boat.

The Chinese worldview is complex, no concept of disharmony, hostility, imperfections, there is only a combination of opposites. Light - darkness, husband-wife ... 5 perfections that are inherent in nature and man: debt, decency, wisdom, sincerity, humanity. Death is a return to its origins. The very wizard book is the book of change and Zyzn (religious and philosophical treatise, divination by pentagram). Major religions: Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism.

Taoism - Yes, it is a great nothing and a great one of which will create the whole world. Originated in 6-5 V to AD. Embedded in Japan, Korea. Founder of Lao Dzi. This is a religious-philosophical teaching, a pantheistic orientation (everything is manifestations of God). Religion without God.

Confucianism It originated 6-5 V to AD. Founder - Confucius. Distributed in China, Japan, Korea. Founder of kun-fu tsu. This is an ethical religious system. Religion without God. Writing is born in 15 V to AD. in the form of hierogdifs. The 1st inscription on the vessels and assignment bones. 1st books - Collection of songs, Hymns NCh 2 thousand BC, Shi-Dzzyn - a book of historical assembly.

Architecture - Great Wall of China (221-224g BC). The houses were built on piles, on the roof of a dragon, roofs with curved edges. Boat - Living Construction. Chinese inventions - printed books, porcelain, silk, mirrors, umbrellas and paper snakes are only a small share of those subjects of our everyday life, which were invented by the Chinese and which people use to this day around the world. It is noteworthy that the Chinese have developed a porcelain production technology for a thousand years to Europeans! And the two most famous Chinese inventions appeared thanks to philosophy. In search of the elixir of the immortality, the Taoist alchemists accidentally brought the formula of the powder, and the magnetic compass was created on the basis of a tool used for geomantia and a hairdry shui.

The life of the primitive peoples of the archaic era is subordinate to the traditions, permeated with ritualism and was little suitable for change. The age-old constancy of the lifeguard of primitive tribes quite consistent with the relative constancy of the natural and climatic conditions in the territories developed by them. When the conditions of existence deteriorated - due to the exhaustion of food resources or climate change, the primitive teams responded to this challenge nature by relocation to areas with more favorable conditions for existence.

We do not know how many primitive tribes died, without preparing the migration tightness (Migro - Lat. Go, move) or, on the contrary, in clashes with starminated hunger by aliens, and how many such tribes, reaching new edges, scattered among the local population. But we know at least two terrain on Earth - in the Valley of the River Nile and in the lower current of the Tiger Rivers and Euphrates, - where the challenge for the first time a more strong answer was given: by the end of the IV Millennium BC to our era there was a new type of human collectiveness , with culture and civilization, which is customary now as the era of antiquity.

The main sign of the offensive of antiquity is the emergence of states. Compare. In the archaic era, any generality was based on blood-study links (family, genus, tribe, etc.), that is, on a sign of unconditionally biological, although meaningful humanly via the myth. In the era of antiquity, the outcomes of human unions began to be approved - the neighborhood, joint ownership, cooperation. These new principles allowed to integrate much more extensive and diverse communities capable of solving unprecedented labor-intensive economic tasks.

The first state formations arose on the banks of the Nile and in the Valleys of the Twires in the process of construction of irrigation systems. The construction of dams and water distribution channels was a new activity that demanded an unprecedented previous organizedness of all participants in the work - in fact, the entire population. The construction should be preceded by design, and the move could be passed only under the control of persons involved in the power of coercion and control. So, in the process of the very irrigation construction, almost simultaneously and independently of each other were formed models of relations characteristic of the early Schumeria and Egyptian statehood.

In general, this new type of community was focused on production, and, for the first time, the organization of production was based on the relationship of power and subordination. Coercion to work, cost accounting and manufactured products, its storage and distribution, creating a reserve, to a certain extent and exchange - all this has become a special area of \u200b\u200bactivity that required special training, knowledge and special, powerful, the status of its executables. The state organization has also allowed dramatically to increase the scale of military activities and construction. Far Military Hiking, as well as the construction of for the first time huge structures - pyramids, palaces, temples and cities, demanded all the same planning, accounting, control and coercion by part of society, in the person of which the state concentrated knowledge and power. Thus, the ancient state for the first time enshrines the hierarchical structure of society: collective interest and collective will are aware of the efforts of a relatively small part (the top of the society), while their practical implementation remains for another, much greater part of it (bottom).

The transition from blood-study unions to state formats of collectivity caused another fundamental innovation to life - legislation. The proclaimed and carried out on behalf of the head of state, the king laws put all the members of the civil team in relations depended on the place of the individual in the public structure, and in no way - from its tropping belonging.

The revolutionary meaning of this transformation is now not easy to appreciate: the new approach overcomed in principle inter-barded differences within the state and at the same time formulated a new idea of \u200b\u200bthe world and the place of man in this world (2.3). In fact, therefore, we are talking about the cultural revolution in the transition from Archaik to antiquity, which the peoples who join the statehood, each in due time, throughout the segment of history in 2-3 thousand years (it is believed that the era of antiquity ended in approximately the V century of our Era with the fall of the Roman Empire).

The expressions of the type go (or enter) into a new cultural era are not quite accurately expressing the essence of the case, for it was nowhere to enter into at first. Peoples of antiquity, the creators of the civilization of the first states and cities worked their culture, rethinking the inherited ideas about the time and space, adapting to new needs of the well-established mythoritual canon.

In the culture of antiquity, as, however, in any other culture, time is the characteristics of the sequence of events meaningful for this culture. The ancient preserves a widespread archaic idea of \u200b\u200bthe time identifying the significant moments of the present with the corresponding primary precedents, as a result of which the past and present are ritually combined. But, as will be shown below, the ancient develops a substantively new mythology, which is devoted to other heroes and other precedents, essential for a new culture and new civilization.

The new in the civilizations of antiquity is also the fact that in them an important place is occupied by temporarily significant events, which requires another ritual-mythological method, to correlate consistently alternating events. For example, the state self-consciousness is important to account for the sequence of kingdoms and dynasties; To streamline private transactions (exchange, loan, debt development, etc.) requires the correlation of the initial and final acts of one operation, between which months and years can run. This circumstance imposes in use other than myth-ritual - an astronomical account of time, usually by years, counting from the beginning of the reign of the active monarch.

Writing began in antiquity in the forms of painted icons, capable of keeping only that much is different from the well-known. Let us continue the football example. Suppose it requires fixation of the results of football matches. Since in these cases, everyone who is interested in these messages know what we are talking about, it is enough to build a fairly simple picture, the so-called icon consisting, for example, from the characters of the players placed one above the other, considering that the command symbol is placed above -Bake (repeated in the number of scored heads), and at the bottom - the loser team. In this case, the entry in the form of "DD / C" can denote the victory of the Dynamo team over the Spartak team with a score of 2: 1.

The history of writing systems launched in ancient times reflects the historically changing ratio of traditional (repeated) and unique (specific) phenomena of civilization - in favor of the latter.

New relations of collectivity, the incarnation of which we find in the states of the ancient world, developed on the basis of the new mythologies of the era of antiquity - new collective ideas about the world and the place of man in this world. The myths of the ancient world directly inherited archaic myths, but their figurative symbolic system became incomparably more developed; She and today amazes the generous variety of events, plots and characters.

The transformation of archaic mythology in ancient expressed in the change of significant foremost precedents. If the archaic myths, to the number of primitives, were predominantly those that led to the creation of universe, people and animals, the new (often updated) the myths of antiquity center attention is transferred to the original, the meaning of which is the meaning of the major skills and values \u200b\u200bof an ancient civilization. According to the myths of antiquity, the heroes of culture, they brought fire to people, equipment processing equipment and manufacturing products, possession of crafts, principles of state life (laws), etc. For example, in the ancient Greeks with a triplet, driving around the whole world, sowed the land and taught it people, and Prometheus kidnapped the symbol of fire from the god craft Hephaesta. The Sumerian God of Enki, who was also worshiped by Hitts and Hurts, as the creator of people, livestock and grain, created, according to myths, plow, hoore, a brick shape, in addition, he was considered the inventor of gardening, gardening, lineries, herbal. In the Ancient Chinese mythology, a number of features presented in myths as an ancient rulers are mentioned in connection with the mining of fire (Sui-Zhen), the invention of the fishing network (Fu-SI), the means of movement - boats and chariots (Juan-di). The merits of other mythical characters of the Ancient China were to teach people agriculture, the sophistication of the first wells, in the introduction to the Chinese civilization of clay vessels and musical instruments, writing and other innovations, including the introduction of exchange trade.

In the movement of peoples from the culture of Archaika to the culture of antiquity, the mythical ideas about the first-enders were also substantially rethought. In general, it is the fact that the place of the first-end-of-creators of the world come first-hand lubricants, gods. The process of this transition is reflected in mythologies as the era of the struggle of new generations of gods with senior deities. In the ancient Greek mythology, the gods from the youngest generation of Olympians headed by their sonor and the head of Zeus, the son of Kronos, who belonged to the older generation of Titanov's gowns, born gay's land and the sky uranium, defeated the ancestors of Titans in a giant battle, personified nature elements with all her catastrophes , and establish a reasonable and ordered world. In the ancient Chinese mythology, the multi-legged and multi-legged chiyu-y (the image of the plurality and disorder of natural forces) is defeated in the battle of the sovereign Juan-Di, which established harmony and order. In the Khurritian mythology there is an epos about reigning in heaven, telling about the struggle and violent change of three generations of gods. In the Sumero-Akkadian mythology, the stories of Tomakhia (struggle of the gods) are partly replaced by the voluntary election of all the gods for the role of their leader of the main god of the city of Babylon Marduk, who won the creator of the first godsinty Tiamat in the cosmic battle.

The myths transformed in this way corresponded to the realities of the era of antiquity. The gods are the rulers of the world, the institutions and guarantors of the order in nature and among people often identified through a myth with earthly lords - rulers, kings. Ancient Jews before the first king Saul, God Yahwe had royal titles. Egyptian pharaohs were considered deities, direct descendants of the Supreme Deity of the Egyptians. Demined, i.e., he wore as deities, and the ancient Sumerian kings. In other cases, the lord of the ancient states was considered divinely appointed to the kingdom. In the Novovavilon kingdom at the beginning of the first millennium BC. e. The ritual of the annual election of the king was formed during the celebration of the New Year (March-April of the Gregorian calendar). In the New Year, - describes this ceremony a modern researcher, - from the Barsippes to Babylon on the Nar Barsippa channel delivered the Istkan of God Nabu, the main god Barsipp. The Babylonian gate of God, the Ustan was unloaded to the land and in a solemn procession through these gates along the street of God Nabu to the Temple Eseagil, the dwelling of God Bal, whose son was considered the God of Nabu. The king was in Esagil, he made a royal insignia from himself and, by completing a number of ceremonies, took the hand of Bal's God in the presence of God Nabu. After that, he was considered selected again and received back signs of royal dignity. This ritual was repeated annually, but necessarily if there is an idiot of God Bal, the idiot of God Nabu and with the participation of the king. Without these three characters, the New Year's holiday could not take place.

So. The culture of the era of antiquity is a mythorganized culture. Myths and rituals serve here and here in an integrator, the focus of the main images and ideas that organize the lives of people and peoples, which are now combined into large - state-community with relevant, state, myths and rituals. The hero of this cult is becoming Vladyka - the king or a deity (the king of the gods or earthly deity, the lord of the four sides of the world), which combines signs of the prisoner-donor (Hammurapi gives his laws) and the ruler of the world and country. In the space of antiquity, the vertical image of the arrangement of world forces begins to prevail, and in the temporary ideas, the image of eternity as a property, the possession of which distinguishes the rulers of the world (for example, pharaohs).

The complex and long history of the ancient world is completed by the existence of the Roman Empire (before the V century. E.), In which the basic properties of the culture of antiquity reached utmost development. The Romans were aware of this, and this consciousness had their pride and their traditionalism. In the culture of the Roman world (Pax Romana), we will find both the complex mythology of the Roman state, and its Pantheon, embodied even in a real construction with the same name, and the emperor deified after the death of the Emperor, and the idea of \u200b\u200bRome as an eternal city. At the same time, in Roman life is wider than anywhere in antiquity, a mini-ritual, practical, regulated by the right, the space of privacy unfolded. In comparison with other cultures of the era of antiquity, Roman practicality is one of the most visible features of this culture, the characteristics of the Roman spirit.

1. Culture of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia

2. Features of the globility of the ancient Egyptians: religion, magic, mythology.

3. Sacralization of Pharaoh's power. Theocracy and clock cult.

4. Cultural heritage of Mesopotamia in the history of mankind.

A new step in the development of culture was made by the Great Civilizations of the Ancient East - Egypt and Mesopotamia.

When studying the culture of ancient Egypt, it is necessary to indicate that this culture was religious, in addition, it is inherent in the despotic form of government, that is, the concentration of power in the hands of one person - Pharaoh, revered by the heir of God on Earth. It is characteristic of the division of the world on earthly and illuminated, which is an improved version of the earthly world, in connection with which the earthly life of a person was only preparation for the future afterlife, but it was predetermined by the gods.

Considering the culture of ancient Egypt, it is impossible not to mention the achievements of art: architecture, sculpture, literature, painting.

Ancient Egyptian civilization has passed all the logical stages of development: from the occurrence of a flourishing and decline. But all the conquests of the ancient Egyptian culture had incredit importance for the further progressive development of human culture.

At the same time, in parallel with the civilization of Egypt, the centers of other ancient cultures were developed and developed and developed and developed by the centers of other ancient crops: Sumer, Akkada, Babylonia, Assyria. However, since in the cultural plan between them a lot of similarities, then often scientists describe three types of culture as a stage of development of one civilization. Speaking about the culture of Mesopotamia, it should be noted that it was in this cultural era that a revolutionary coup in the history of mankind occurred - from agriculture to the creation of urban culture and the formation of the state. No less significant achievement of the Sumero-Accident culture was improving writing.

The cultural legacy of the ancient peoples of Mesopotamia was used and reworked in the era of creating a significantly higher civilization and had an incredit value for the further development of world culture.

Questions for self-control

Give the periodization of ancient Egyptian culture.

What invention were made by the ancient Egyptians?

Name the distinctive features of Egyptian visual arts.

What contribution made the culture of Mesopotamia in the development of world culture?

Zamensky V. Their Majesty Pyramid. M., 1986.

History of the Ancient East. M., 1983.

Korostovtsev MA Religion of ancient Egypt. M., 1976.

Kramer S.N. The story begins in Sumer. M., 1991.

Culture of ancient Egypt. M., 1976.

Oppenheim A.L. Ancient Mesopotamia. M., 1990.

Culture of Ancient India and Ancient China

Main features and system of values \u200b\u200bof Indo-Buddhist culture.

Art, architecture and literature of ancient India.

Ritual, ethics and ceremonies in ancient China.

The originality of Chinese art: the trinity of calligraphy, poetry and painting.

India and China are the most ancient of the existing civilizations that have a lot in common with the culture of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia: traditionalism, rituality, canonism, a close relationship of culture with religious and philosophical views.

Considering the culture of ancient India, it should be noted that all major religions of the world are presented in India, which characterizes a rather complicated ideological and social structure of Indian society and inevitably affects the diversity of Indian culture. In addition, Indian religions created in art a unique atmosphere of movement, flickering of life, contributed to strengthening the principle of incompleteness. The originality of Indian art is the originality of thinking - religious and artistic. No less bright are music, literature, theater, dance.

Unlike other Eastern cultures, Chinese culture is more rational and pragmatic. The development of the spiritual culture of ancient China is a long process of forming a generic mythological consciousness, and subsequently a religious worldview and the first philosophical concepts. It should be noted that in China's culture, two philosophical and religious teachings were played a major role - Confucianism and Taoism.

When considering ritual, ethics and ceremonies in ancient China, it is advisable to take advantage of the works of China and the culturologist, Professor Talkangovsky University V.V. Malyavina.

Studying the culture of ancient China, you should pay attention to the literature, visual arts, theater, decorative and applied art.

Questions for self-control

Name the religious and philosophical systems of ancient India.

What are the main features of the culture of ancient India?

What are the features of the mentality of the ancient Chinese?

What is the originality of Chinese art?

What invention and discoveries were made in ancient China?

Bongard-Levin GM. Ancient Indian civilization. M., 1980.

Vasilyev L.S. Cults, religions, traditions in China. M., 1970.

Guseva N.R. India: Millennium and modernity. M., 1971.

Ancient civilizations. M., 1989.

Control art / comp., Per., Intr. Art. and comments. V.V. Malyavina. M., 2003.

Chinese civilization. / Ed. V.V. Malyavina, M., 2000.

Kochetov A.N. Buddhism. M., 1965.

Culture of ancient India. M., 1975.

Myths of Ancient India. Literary presentation V.G. Erman and E.N. Temkin. M., 1975.