What do you know about the library in Pergamum. Pergamm Library - Secrets of Ancient Manuscripts

The Pergamm kingdom was founded by followed by mainland Greece. The ruins, one of the most notable Hellenistic states in the world, can be seen on the outskirts of the city of Bergam in Turkey.

The ancient city of Pergam, the capital of the Pergamsky kingdom, hit all the beauty and greatness. Truly, exciting and grandiose were temples built in honor of the goddesses of Athens and Demeters, the Majestic Pergaman Altar and Asklepium. But global glory and fame of Pergami acquired thanks to his unique library.

Library competing with Alexandria

The Pergamm Library was founded in the II century BC. During the reign of Tsar Evemen II and was located in the Acropolis. During its heyday, more than 200 thousand scrolls were kept in its foundations. If we consider that the inhabitants of Pergama were also about 200 thousand people somewhere, then it is safe to say that one resident of the ancient capital of the Pergham kingdom accounted for at least one book from the royal book treasury.

In those days, only Alexandrian library exceeded the Pergaman wealth and a variety of its funds. Alexandria, not wanting to divide the title of the World Culture Center and Science with Pergam, did everything possible so that the glory of the Alexandria Library could not be surpassed by someone else. Therefore, the Alexandrian ruler of Ptolemy V forbade Papius from Egypt, which served as the most common and cheaper material for writing in the ancient world. As a result of this, the replenishment of the Funds of the Pergamine Library was put under the blow.

Parchment - invention of Pergamum

However, this event not only did not destroy the Pergham library, but she gave her a new impetus in development. Pergamsky king Evmen II ordered urgently to invent alternative material for writing and creating books. And such material was found in a rather short time. Even its name, Parchmen, he received by the name of the city, where it was invented. Parchment made from pieces of subtlest, skillfully isolated goat, ram and calf leather. Of course, this material was much more expensive than a cheap papyrus, and more time went to the dressing and processing. But the parchman turned out to be much stronger and more than his papyrus fellow.

Unlike papyrus, Parchmen dignified the time check. In the future, it was he, before the invention of the paper, became the material most used in the world for the letter. Thanks to this invention, the Pergamsk Library competed with a library of Alexandria more than a hundred years old. First, Parchmen, as well as papyrus, was stored in the form of scrolls that wrapped on wooden sticks. But then he was learned to fold in separate notebooks ("four"), having a rectangular shape (the so-called "codes"). Later, such a notebook began to sew in the books as we know them now.

Funds and arrangements

Funds of the Pergamsk Library were universal. The manuscripts of ancient Greek authors, scientific and religious works were kept here, but the greatest part of the funds was medical literature. Thanks to this feature of the Funds of the Pergamsk Library, the ancient Pergami acquired the fame of the World Medical Center, thousands of thirsty to study medical treatises that were stored in the famous library were glad.

In addition, the temple was built in Pergamum in honor of the Eskulap God - the patron saint of medicine and doctors. In the temple contained a living snake, under the species of which the Eskulap was worshiped, and which, as a deity, was honored to honors. It was from here that the tradition went to portray the snake, accused of a bowl with poison, as a symbol of medicine.

The priests of this temple were engaged in his healing, and the temple itself was largely reminded the hospital. His sanctuary was striking and those who wish to know the mystery of medicine, mysterious magical rituals used by priests to cure from the ailments.

Attalades, the rulers of the Pergami Kingdom, as well as their venance Alexandria, did not bother to replenish their royal book collection. Known, for example, such a fact when gold was paid for the acquisition of the works of the famous ancient Greek philosopher of Aristotle exactly as much as the manuscripts were wearing.

The Pergamsk Library was placed in the temple of Athena, who was considered a patronage of the city of Pergamus and the library itself. It was located in quite spacious premises that served as storage facilities and as reading rooms. The manuscripts were stored in a simple order in special niches made of cedar wood, as it was believed that this material contributes to the best preservation of books and protects them from insect pests. Book shelves were located in such a way that the air can freely circulate between them, which in conditions of a wet warm climate of Antalya contributed to the prevention of accumulation of excess moisture in books.

The Pergham Library worked a whole state of keepers, scribes and translators. All books were systematized, a detailed catalog of manuscripts existing in the library was conducted.

And the library's premises itself, and the territory around it were tested by busts and statues of famous philosophers and writers, and the magnificent statue of the goddess Athena rises in the center of the main hall.

A school of grammar was working in the Pergam's library, based by Craththhtoma, a famous grammar and a stoic philosopher. He not only headed the Pergamian grammar school, but also was the head of the famous library. In scientific and cultural relations, Pergami was not capable compared with Alexandria and Antioch.

Disappearance

The disappearance of the Pergamm Library is associated with the name of the ancient Roman commander Mark Anthony. It happened when the Pergham kingdom lost its independent status and became the Roman province, going to the power and management of Rome. Presumably in 43 BC. Madly in love with the Egyptian queen Cleopatra Mark Anthony made his passionately adorable queen a grand gift - 200 thousand manuscripts that made up the main value of the Pergamm Library. Cleopatra very delighted the possibility of the revival of the greatness of the Alexandria library, significantly injured during a large-scale fire. And the Pergham Library, which has become part of the funds of his more famous rival, disappeared forever as an independent book assembly.

Treasures of ancient Pergamum

In the 1870s. In Malaya Asia, he was looking for antiquity not only the famous subsequently Heinrich Schliman, swallowed by Troy. The name of the other German, is also not a professional historian and archaeologist, and Karl Human's coinage engineer became famous for the fact that, working on the construction of the railway in Turkey, once he completely suddenly acquired a high hill in the vicinity of Bergamo. Rather, not the entire hill, but one of his slopes. And if this acquisition was not alerted the authorities, then the next step of the engineer was supposed to alert, but ...

An enterprising German has signed a paper from Sultan himself, on which any piece of old marble found on this hill was recognized as the property of Kaiser Germany.

It is easy to guess that such a "piece" could well be, for example, an ancient statue or part of the architectural structure of the Hellenic or Roman era.

But I could not come to anyone that Human became the owner of the ruins of the whole city of Pergama, founded in the XII century BC. e. Ancient Greeks.

Apparently, in the period of heyday (and sunset) of the Greek-Mikan culture, the Cretan civilization, the predecessor of ELDA, expanded the boundaries of influence on many areas along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Most likely, she controlled not only the water of this sea, but also a significant part of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Be that as it may, approximately the same time, when the per-gam was founded, the famous Argonauts journey headed by ambitious Jason, the death of Troy (at least the Trojan War) and the events preceding it. This suggests that the Greek cities-colonies were not rare in Asia Minor.

Yes, it was an ancient Pergam, what Human guessed, comparing the name with the city of Bergamo. True, Pergamum abandoned and destroyed, but it was the Pergami: this was evidenced by the inscriptions at some parts of the ancient marble that fell into later, medieval walls.

Like more, the antique Pergam was not the fiction of the ancient authors, but a really existing city.

Karl Human enthusiastically began excavating. True, it was already in 1882 and even at first he hired professional archaeologists and began to dig only after they removed the exact area of \u200b\u200bthe area. But when the excavations began, the expected dyed before Valid: For many years, Humanov began, discovered and sent a huge number of masterpieces of ancient art to Germany. Only the First World War prevented excavations continuously. By the way, in that war, Germany, former Turkish's ally, managed to use that railway, for the construction of which Karl Human was never returned.

And Humann, the city himself turned out to be extraordinary even for the ancient Greeks.

Probably, the living conditions of the colonizers were not so beautiful: because we should not forget that in those days, mighty hetts owned the brand and antitatus, which the Great Egyptian Pharaohs were afraid.

At the very least, the troubles delivered to the lords of both Egypt with Hattskaya disturbances are recorded even in the correspondence of the king Amenhotep III and his son Ehnaton, found in Achetaton. That initially Greek, and from the III century BC. e. Rather, Roman than Greek, Per-Gam was forced to have reliable protection against "Aboriginal" this place in the area of \u200b\u200bthe shallow river KaIC, says a double fortress wall, conjunctioning ancient city. And the city itself was located entirely on a hill with a height of 70 m.

Security considerations were forced by the rulers of Per-Gama in the III century BC. e. Search for high and mighty patrons: they chose Rome. And the last king Attal III Zevet Schon Rome his kingdom with the capital in Pergamum in full property. Since then, the prosperity and protection of pergamam as a center of arts and science in Malaya Asia has become the concern of the Roman rulers. In contrast to the conquered cities, Pergami Romans did not destroy, but only more worried. After all, he became the center of the Roman province of Asia.

Many artists were built before the Roman epoch and decorated with Pergami. This ancient city, which raised on the rock, was a very unusual look. The main streets that had a steep hill were not the streets in the literal sense, but two paved slabs appeared by the serpentine loops, raising residents and travelers to the top of the top; They converged at the Acropolis walls. And the buildings and structures of the following epochs were raised taking into account the relief, therefore, where it was possible, classic columns that supported elegant vaults grow out of the stone. True, in places where the natural rock breed was not enough, the walls and parapets were laid out of the same stone. When the buildings were unusable or were destroyed by naturally, new generations were re-built them, without changing neither planning, no main town-planning concept. If it were not for the traditional Elllinsky spirit, demanding from the appearance of the city of airiness and greatness at the same time, the Hill of Per-Gama, most likely, would imagine the rages of the cells similar to the gamer. This did not happen here: the pergams do not look like traditionally oriental cities. And the Acropolis at the top created the impression of the hill with the crown.

Around the middle of the slope of the hill there was an extensive terrace, which replaced the townspeople. She lived in the ensemble of the city. The terrace was maintained by a wall built as a powerful retaining structure. Above was located directly along the slope of the amphitheater from the ninety of the series, knocked out in the form in the form of a horseshoe of the age of the age, which was created by the impression of a waterfall. The horseshoes are rows of spectator sites, and only this theater accompanied fourteen thousand spectators. The steepness of the "visual hall" was 46 m.

All Palaces and Temples of Pergamus are architecturally bated in a huge amphitheater. He is the soul of the whole ensemble. However, the Romans made one significant addition here: over the "crown" itself, the columns of the Roman Temple are tested over the Acropol. His romance is also impressive and leaves no doubt that this is the earth, the center of whose province is Pergam. His columns are made of whole slices of stone, and they are on the base, the height of which is approaching the height of the walls of the Greek Acropolis. It is clear that the length of the sandstone column is necessarily higher than any of the highest Greek Greek building. Marble floors are carved from solid pieces of marble, and the fronton decorate marble sculptures. In the depths of the temple there is a statue of Emperor Trajan, in which the erection of the temple itself was completed.

In the midst of the city market square in Pergamma stood the statue of Hermes, the patron saint of trade and, as the myths say, God, who himself was a fair-made swallow.

The trading vendor is felt in Pergama for no accident: he lay on his way from Asia to Europe and Africa. There were commercial routes of the entire pool of the Indian Ocean and affordable at the time of the coast of the Atlantic Ocean, and also merchants from all countries of the Mediterranean coast, Aegean and Evtsin Ponta, and for them to North stretched so mysterious and not similar to southern countries. Hyperbed ...

As for the Statue of Hermes, it was not simple: every hour, until the market was trading, out of the horns of an abundance in the hand of God was poured into the pool jet precious for these places of water. There is no analogue of this original watch in the world. Over the market was the gallery; Downtown judges rested in it. This is in their duties in the evening, before closing the market, cut the tails of the whole caught, but not sold per day fish. The reasons for such a tough handling of the locked goods were two: first to avoid the development of epidemics, and secondly, the judges tried to protect against the fraud of naive buyers. Truly, in this city there was no concept of "second freshness"!

Three terraces built gymnasiums. Boys from 7 to 13 years old studied here on the first terrace (of three). It was here that a teacher for five to six years forced them to jar without a sticking, many and many texts of classical poems, play lyre or flute, sing, write and count. And each of them passed through the daily contemplation of an excellent gallery of ancient statues and portraits of the ancient wise men. As a reward for obedience and adjacent names themselves, students themselves were entered into separate plates in the depths of the wall niche. On the second terrace where the spiral staircase is leading - the hall for sports. Few people know that the classes of gymnastics, the struggle, jumping and running in ancient times, not exactly as in our time. For example, the fighters before the duel were fused by olive oil, and the struggle itself passed into dust, abundantly moistened with water. True, then students, young men 13-18 years old, was allowed to swim in pools with warm and not very warm water to return the body ease and move fatigue. And the dirt of the students said with themselves special bronze scrapers, after which it was estimated again to graze oil.

For those who have shucked eighteen, that is, for adults and comprehended, the difficult learning of real men who often had to be warriors, the third terrace was given. There was a gallery of honorary and glorified citizens; It was in this list that every pergamets dreamed. The third terrace was already intended for adult assembly, thinking, loving valley and philosophical discussions.

In addition to the main market where everyday trade was located, there was also an upper market located at the top of the city, where the rich townspeople lived. Her in the end was occupied by the occupied city of Roman soldiers and chiefs, officials and merchants. It is rebuilt by them in a slightly free style: the floors are completed and redone on the other roof of the roof of the houses. The wealthy part of the population led trade on a different scale. And the product range here was wider, and the goods themselves are more exotic. And here was the altar for sacrifices of the Supreme God Olympus Zeus. The altar was obscured by the relief, on which the battle of Gods and Titans was depicted, - the page of Greek mythology.

But maybe the main thing that was in Pergama is the library, the beauty and the pride of the inhabitants, the rustic envy of other cities. First, she was placed in the temple of Athens - the patroness of the Athenian people. The gallery of heroes, commander and gods, created by brilliant sculptors of antiquity. It is curious that the master depicting the battle of Pergammers with Gallam, showed galls, and even defeated, strong and noble. Does not come out of here a nominal and not quite a decent name to the imiters and followers, which although directly and does not apply to the sculptor, but still expresses the citizens who are dissatisfied with the portrait of gallows? Sculptor called ... epigor.

Athena patronized Pergham library. And no wonder: the library in Pergamam in the number of manuscripts was almost equal to the Alexandria library. Egyptian king of Ptolemy in the II century BC. e., not torture rivalry, forbade the export of Papyrus from Egypt. Then in Pergamam was born (or was restored) an ancient technology of producing from the skin of calves, goats and rams of special material for the manufacture of books - parchment.

Easy removal of wool with extracts in lime water skins, scraping the desktop tissue to the epidermis, the subsequent polishing and drying were a special preservation of the skin without preliminary chemical means. The hair side remained somewhat rough and had a yellowish color, the meat was white and smooth. Fresh-written text could be erased, old - only scraping. The so-called "Pergamian Code" was a pack of folded four-channel sheets (quaternion), a woolen side to wool, meat to meat. In the Pergamian manuscripts for the first time appear illustrations. In total, over two hundred thousand scrolls were kept in the Pergam-Skoy Library!

Lost "Liber"

More than a hundred years, the Pergamm Library competed with Alexandria, but in 31 BC. e. Mark Anthony in love decided to give the Pergamian library with his adorable Cleopatra, and all invaluable manuscripts were taken to Alexandria. There was no such curtail strike with a knife in the back of his back, even from cynical and honey to someone else's good Romans.

In the VIII century n. e. Pergam was conquered by Arabs, in the XIV century - Turks. However, this is a completely different story ...

It is not known that in this riddle for the reader is more interesting - the library of the Russian king John of the Terrible or the history of its search? And where is it better to start? ..

Probably from the end. On September 16, 1997, on the days of the celebration of the 850th anniversary of Moscow - the anniversary, by the way, was very controversial, except that the tributes of respect specifically prince Yuri Dolgorukome, - the world had a sensational news: 87-year-old Moscow pensioner Apalos Ivanov in a personal conversation with Moscow Mayor Yuri Luzhkov He informed him that he knew the location of the famous library Ivan the Terrible! The pensioner believed that if the library was not found in the place mentioned in them, then "its further searches are generally meaningless."

Pensioner Elemp, as he himself put it, from "domestic reasons." But the meeting organizers told ITAR-TASS to Evgeny Evdokimov that "almost all researchers approached close to the famous library lost sight."

True, the organizers did not share, how exactly the seekers "lost" vision: after all, they approached the opening of state importance or, it is better to say, the planetary value! ..

To the mayor himself told the mayor himself pensioner Apalm Ivanov: For a long time, working in the Kremlin, he once already visited those dungeons where "forgotten" the library, and the fact that it still "is not found" is explained by the "strict secrecy regime" for Kremlin walls. From this we can conclude that the library's riddles in principle do not exist, and those "who should" are well aware of its location. Apalos Ivanov added that it transmits this information to the Moscow Gradorchik only because he is a person who trusts the pensioner ".

Interestingly, another old man was instantly responded to the message of ITAR-TASS - Mastyd Akademik D. S. Lee Khachev, one of the world's largest experts in the world. "Instead of inflating the excitement around the search and the secrets of the library of Ivan Grozny," said Academician, "it would be more important to save the book treasures that are dying in our days." Dmitry Sergeevich explained his statement by the fact that even if the library of Ivan the Terrible detects, the find will not represent a great scientific value (in the media, its value is clearly exaggerated), since "a significant part of this meeting was church books that Sophia Pale-Oolog brought On Russia from Byzantium to pray in his native language. " Although the academic and later brought examples of several fires in libraries - Pulkovo Observatory, Academy of Sciences, Admiralty, the historical faculty of St. Petersburg University, in which in recent years, many thousands of rare books have died, although academician and convinced that "since the fire suffer mainly Antique departments ", it" testifies to one thing: someone warms hands on this, and the fires cover the theft, "Nevertheless, its position is read completely unequivocally: D. S. Likhacheva is not enough of the long-time lured in the state library Not well-known works by the world of Tacita, Vergil, Julia Caesar, Tita Libya, Aristophan, Cicero, Heliotrope, Fleet, Efan, Bafnas ...

However, the director of the Archaeological Research Center Alexander Veksler on the same day "has encouraged the population", saying that the library of Ivan the Terrible, of course, the case is interesting, and he, director of the center, hopes that the library will be discovered. The "Moscow dungeons are full of treasures," the scientist shared with a correspondent with a strongly overcoming problem, but added that the center headed by him leads large-scale archaeological studies that "already gave brilliant results".

As can be seen, in the question of the search and value of the library of the Russian sovereign, the scientist, as well as during almost the 20th century, took only the expectant, if not to say - skeptical, position. It is understandable: where it is easier to simply give right and left interviews on this or that matter what to get together with the forces and go down to the bottom of the dungeon, where "full treasure".

In which the problem has already arisen with the creation of a search staff. The story of the searches themselves dictates: if the "headquarters" is organized, it may probably mean only the fact that 2-3 enthusiast will be searched again, and the XX century knows their name. Among the first, Ignatius Yakovlevich Steel-Lzzky, then "infected" V. Osokin, I. E. Koltsov, E. A. Phenelonov, A. Ivanov and sympathizing with them. Here, perhaps, all. But what kind of people! Some of them should be told more.

Apalos Ivanov, being an engineer, in the 30s. I received the task "Determine the cubature" of the christ of Christ the Savior. On December 5, 1931, the building of the temple was erased from the face of the Earth, but before that the regrettable fact of Ivanov found "a secret move in the eastern wall of the former temple." Thirty-four steps down the researcher turned out to be in a spacious tunnel - "good", as he himself put it. The stroke height was more human growth. Going through the tunnel, Ivanov reached the fork. One move was led to the Kremlin, the second went to the right, to Simonov's pass. The engineer has found there and "skeletons chained rust chains", and "iron doors" separating transition compartments. Further, he could not pass: the iron door, which was in the head of the temple, was sealed by the NKVD employees, putting reliable protection, and the outlet from under the ground to the Moscow river was inspired by brickwork.

Apalos Ivanov, everything broke, which did not investigate the truly compartments: he was already "sick" the library of the Russian king and believed that it could be in the basement or underground tunnel ... the later temple! Years passed, the engineer did a lot of dungeons and closely approached the find of the library ...

So what is it all the same for the library and what is its attractive force?

History ordered in such a way, first of all rejected the subjunctive inclination against himself. The circumstances of the same or strength that can turn the subjunctive inclination into valid, are in no hurry to seem to the world. At different times, the best and most complete libraries of the planet burned down at a completely identical scenario. It is enough to remember one only Alexandrian! Time will come, and humanity will cease to know its history: the lack of archives is the terrible thing that can expect us. Ivan the Terrible, a brilliant writer and the thinker of his time, it just greatly realized. Therefore, it was sat down for drawing up the arch of human history, it was basically going to put an existing "chronograph" and ... Materials of his own library! To the "chronograph" of the XVI century we will return. In the meantime, we will remember this circumstance and move in 1472.

The Grand Duke of the Moscow Ivan III Vasilyevich Ovedel and married the Byzantine princess Sophie Paleologist, having received "in the dowry" a unique library that belonged to the latest emperor of Byzantium Konstantin XI, and by that time the family relic of Paleologists.

The niece of the emperor Sophia (Zoya), finding Moscow Wooden and surviving a small fire in it, immediately discharged from Italy the famous artist and architect Aristotle Phiorewanti and told him to build a white cache under the Kremlin - for the "dowry". She also suggested, as historians believe, Ivan Vasilyevich to rebuild the Kremlin, and in the XV century the Moscow Kremlin became white, and the "white-name", as it is known, the Moscow is still called.

The son of Ivan III, Vasily III Ivanovich, attracts for the transfer of books of the monk of Maxim in Liber "Liber". Translating the "intelligent psalm", Maxim at the same time did and inventory "Liberey" this is reflected in the "Tale of Maxim of the philosopher".

It is not known how the library from Ivan III Son Vasilya was passed, and from Vasily - Ivan Grozny. There are opinions as the grandson, and even the son of Ivan III specifically wanted her to cache. Allegedly and Ivan, and Vasili littered the book storage. What it was connected, it is not entirely clear if not followed by the logic of "curse", which will be said below. Be that as it may, "Liberey" has always been a favorite and cherished Ivan the Terrible Treasure. Whatever the palace he moved, and no matter how much it lives, the library always held a secret course, so that the sovereign had the opportunity to be in the repository and touch the cherished foliants. Lists, scrolls and books in the library were in different languages, but mainly in Latin, Greek and Hebrew ...

During the Livonian War (1558-1583), prisoners of Livons were brought to Russia and destroyed in different provincial cities, mainly in Vladimir. At about 1565/66. The next batch was accompanied by Derptor Pastor John Wetteman. Having met Ivan the Terrible in the Alexander Sloboda, the pastor received from the king the proposal to engage in the translation of the ancient books into Russian. Having been in the repository and seeing the treasure with his own eyes, about which rumors went in Europe, Pastor Onmel from a collection of such a great number of rarities in one dungeon. Stretching time with the final answer, Wetteman allegedly engaged in work on translations, and in fact made a catalog of the sovereign treasury. At the beginning of the XVII century in the "Chronicle" F. Nienstedt described in detail the involved with the Derptist Pastor in Russia. Probably, the list of Wetterman "surfaced" in 1822, when Professor of the Derptsky University of Christian Dabelov appealed to some city archives of Estlandia with a request to send him interesting historical publications and documents. From Pernova (Pärnu), he came a package, where two finely kicked leaves were lying. The text was written in Staroneeseca ink, by that time almost faded:

"... how much does Tsar have manuscripts from the east. These were only up to 800 ... Libyan history, Cicero Book de Republic and eight books historians. Svetoniev stories about the kings ... Tacitov history. Vergili Aneida and ITH ..."

"ITh ..." is "Itchifaleka", popular among the contemporaries of Vergilia, but by the time of Troubles in Russia lost, and it has long been, no matter whether it was contained or not in the king's library. In addition to the famous hymns of Pin Dara in the library there were other poems, which no one knew about. The historical part of "Liberey" turned out to be the most complete: historians were presented almost everything in full!

Having made a copy from the list, Dabelov sent a document back to Perry.

Derptsky, Professor Walter Klosxius in 1826, arrived in Perron to familiarize himself with this list in the script, but ... the list was no longer available! .. Klosxius scrupulously and patiently wanted "Liber" in Moscow, but did not find it. At the end of the last century, Strasbourg scholar Eduard Tre-Mer, asking the highest enforcement of Emperor Alexander III, a special probe explored the land under the facilities of the Moscow Kremlin. His searches did not give results, although he was very hoping for the basements - the subcounted floor of the Terman Palace, erected just on the white-eyed cellars. The confirmation of the brilliant possibilities flashed the message that a small palace church was found in the terragen palace under the garbage and barrels with the tar stamps. Gorky regretting the failure, at the time of departure from Russia E. Trever said: "Science will congratulate Russia if she succeeds to find his lost treasure."

The question of the library of Grozny is a scientist controversy in Russia. Russian historians also finally began to search for treasure.

The topic was asked not a foreigner Trever - the discussions fastened and flared up with a new force since 1724, but they began with the statement of the station of the Moscow Church of John the Forerunner.

Konon Osipova. After Osipov has already attempted to find the library for Peter I, he wrote a dontocution in the office of fiscal affairs in St. Petersburg, in which he stated that the Kremlin's dungeon had "two chambers", made to the ceiling in chests with unknown content. On them "The castles are hanging switched, prints on the wire of lead; and at those chambers in one window, and in them grilles without shifts." At the interrogation of Osipov showed that he learned all this from Deca Vasily Makaryev, former at death. Makaryev came across the storage at the time of the princes of Sophia. The caches were located near the Townitsky gate, and from the Round Tower it was possible to go to the River Neglinnaya ...

Senate decided to spend excavations. The dungeons were looking for a Tainytic gate on a residential yard, on the square against the foreign collegium (there was a cellar), opposite the bell tower of Ivan the Great, at the Tsykhghause wall in the round tower, in the Tenitsky gate themselves ... could not find anything or did not have time: the Osipov found a state immossal And they threw that the Ponoloire was deliberately imitated the rapid activities, allegedly pursuing state interest, and in fact having a goal to unscrew from the debt. However, as V. Osokin said rightly, the cunning of the shelter, if she was in the story, does not drop the shadow of doubts about the existence of the library of the Russian king in general ... At the end of the XIX century, the excavation was performed by Prince N. S. Shcherbatov. But nothing seekers found. However, the idea of \u200b\u200bexcavations did not die. At the beginning of the XX century, Ignatiy Yakovlevich Stelletsky picked up. He was engaged in the problem of "Liberey", "infecting" her in 1947 of the Young Writer Vasily Osokina and many more. In 1914 Ignatiy Yakovlevich traveled to Pärnu. And after all, I found the cherished sheets with the mark "w"! But they disappeared almost a hundred years before.

Take a picture of the document in the enthusiast-scientist there was no money, and the quality of the text, barely visible because of the thrust ink, left much to be desired. Stelletsky rewrote it from hand ... And the sheets with the mark "w" disappeared again! .. Ignatia Yakovlevich did not have a single evidence in his hands, except for this personally, and the USSR and Estonia did not go. After the Great Patriotic War, in August 1945, Professor I. Ya. Stelletsky rushes to Riga, because the Testamentists of Starina accidentally mentioned about the library of Ivan Grozny ... Ignatiy Yakovlevich died in 1949, and without completing the main work, without finding sovereign "Liber".

Archaeological secrets, and the library of Ivan Grozny belongs to the category of precisely, if they are not solved by a raysterity for centuries, of course, turn the legends, superstitions, "signs". It has no reason to mention the "blindness", which lifting people, almost achieved the impact and wandered somewhere around the library.

It would be interesting to find historical confirmations of the state of the health of past seekers "from the simple" - Konon Osipova, Vasily Makareva, Fuchicov, Wetter Man, Jerome Gorsay, who Ivan Groznya suddenly presented the Bible from his library, now stored in the British Museum. However, the state of health, as well as personal and family affairs of the reigns of those who had reigned, we are well known. After all, it really told and the opinion that Sophia Paleologist was a sorceress and put on the repository of books and manuscripts no less than the "Curse of Pharaohs", which he learned from ancient parchment, a scroll in the same library!

We know the difficult fate of John IV. The true lover of "Liberei" and old knowledge, perfectly focused in world history, especially antique, Ivan Grozny after youthful good luck experienced a long-term series of shocks, which were not only on his personal health and fate, but also on the fate and health of Russia. From 1564 and almost until his very death, Grozny lived in the Alexander Sloboda, but it's not quite right: leaving.

Moscow, he has been looking for a lot and for a long time, Kolomenskoye, Vologda, Alexandrov ... Returned and lived outside the Kremlin ... Why would you? .. Would you like meal and boyars and a doom? Doesn't the rock "Curse"? .. Alexandrov, in fact, for twenty years, who turned into the capital of Russia, also did not satisfy the king: he rushed out of him, but could not escape. Very easy to write off on a mental illness, as A. K. Tolstoy, but not yet explained, and the topic also expects a researcher to scrupulous and honest. After all, it is known that the king was going to even emigrate! .. Content, anticipating all further, what happens to him, with children and with Russia, he did not know only one thing - why? The philosophical question "For what?" Of course, it could also be sounded, but he, fortunately, was already deeply investigated by specialists in the history of Russia of the XVI-XVII centuries. And, not knowing why? ", The king continued to carry the notorious library ... The last three years, after the ugly murder of the future heir and the son of Ivan, John Grozny was in the troubled mind. And the glorious Dynasty of Rurikovich stalls on a brown and low-cost feodore.

Boris Godunov also sought the library of the king! And also fought badly. I was looking for her Lhadmitry! .. his fate is known. Although specialists who plunged in full secretions of this king, it is known that "libe" very much could even be (and most likely there was a real Tsarevich Dimitri! ..

Searches for the library actively engaged in Napoleon Bonaparte, entering Moscow! ..

Early died by Ignatius Yakovlevich Stelletsky, the writer and enthusiast Vasily Osokin died suddenly, the truth, a lot managed to popularize the very fact of the existence of the library and its search. It seems that there is no wonder in the search system, all the same people with phenomenal, "carriage" abilities - Lozhoto, I. E. Koltsov, psychic Yu. Shurtin and others. However, all their insights were false.

To go to the versions, you should talk a little about what happened with the Libery with Ivan Grozny.

The charter of the rebellion and resistance of the boyars, in 1564, King John, gathering the "belongings", with the queen Marya and the children left the Russian from Moscow. It was December 3, on Sunday, and looked like an ordinary departure to Bogomol in Kolomenskoye ... But this time everything was different.

The royal train was not only unexpectedly granted, it is also extremely long: a few hundred ties! So the mantis do not go. Moscow was Zakipel, for it was used to the rope from a too soft sovereign, but quickly ceased, realizing: it is serious! And I hid, waiting for the king himself to announce - that with him. The oppressive state of the capital lasted about a month ...

John took with him not only the icons and crosses: he folded all the clothes and jewelry, as well as "money and all his treasury." What does it mean? The fact is that the money is understood by the Alexander Nevskaya Church, and the treasury, which includes papers, letters, books, separately. And the unusually large armed guard, accompanying the king, said that, of course, all this is not good.

True, the king was in Kolomensky for two weeks. But not stayed there! Was in Trinity. And there was not delayed. It was somewhere else ... he finally stopped in Alexander Sloboda. And here from there - directed diplomas to Moscow with actual ultimatum: or renunciation, or opal to boyars! Whether the Grozny had a subtle calculation, did it really be seriously renounced?

Here it is necessary to make a slight retreat. Why is it says that the Grozny was a soft sovereign? .. Yes, because, probably, he received a nickname, as they say, "from the opposite": well-read intelligent man, one of the smartest and kind people of his time, was king only nominal. It was always used by the boyars first, then foreigners-ryrichniki. Yes, perhaps the king was quick-tempered, but it rather was not the formidable quick temper in a known understanding, but emotional-impulsive gusts, attacks, in one of which, they say, he inadvertently killed the son of Ivan, hitting him by a staff. Or maybe not? Maybe, for once again, I took the blame for myself, killed by the parent and state? .. Anyway, it could only be called in a mockery. What probably happened, but the XVI century did not yet know the quotes.

Under the pressure of the people of the boyars ... gave way to the king! Another, indirect, confirmation of the softness of Grozny: People in such situations becomes very sensitive. True, the poor people did not know that Okrichnina began, from which he would get great ...

But we are now interested only by the treasury: since it is about the "whole treasury", the discrepancies are not expected here, "it means that the library was at the king! This is confirmed by the fact that at the beginning or middle of 1565, driving to Vladimir through Alexandrov, "Liber" saw Wetterman.

However, after that, the events in the documents disappear whatever mention of the library. There is an indirect confirmation that the library existed Yves 1581: An Englishman Jerome Gordsy took from the king as a gift to the Bible ... Mussei came in Alexandrov (the opening of the local historian from Alexandrova M. Kunitsyn).

The king returns to Moscow, but in the Kremlin he is uncomfortable, and he settles in the new palace - on an oprichny yard, where he feels more comfortable. It was behind the River Neglinnaya, on the Vodozhenskaya Street. Square, huge sizes of the courtyard, discharged with a high stone wall with three gates, more reliable than the Kremlin, defended the sovereign from the misfortune. Protection never dreamed. 500 Saglots carried a permanent guard. Tsarist chambers, household buildings, and near the orders. Is there a library not hidden here? .. Doesn't the underground stroke walked to these codses? In the territory of 8 hectares occupied by the Tsarist Dvor, it could well be placed "Kaz Tag".

In 1571, the king decides to move to Vologda! There and to trade closer, and yet the north - the source of Great Rus, the beginning of Rurikovich. In Vologda, a stone city is built on the orders of Ivan the Terrible to turn around the capital of Russia. But ... Fate has opposed the transfer of the capital: in Vologda in 1571, the plague began a plaque. Mounted in 1-556, "Grad Belocamen" and the Cathedral Church of the Assumption of the Most Holy Theotokos remained the North Court of the King to Memory. But living in Vologda, the sovereign self-confined contact and good relations with the British. But Vologda reserved from any raids, protected from any raids has represented a long time and represents the place where it is convenient and pleasant to make state affairs. But Ivan did not find any joy or peace for himself. The unfinished Annunciation Cathedral was given under the powder warehouse, and numerous underground strokes and basements, built in the first place, did not use for any reason. Or maybe they used yes silent? ..

They dug and examined the Cathedral Mountain in the XVII century: Archbishop Vologda Simon excavated part of the underground structures and found silver and decorations. The stone from the dungeons went to the completion of the bishop house. In the XVIII century, a brick was taken to the Resurrection Cathedral and the bishop of the Soviet, which is called the Vologda Kremlin now. They say there is a deep secret passage under the Vologda River, connecting the Kremlin with a spa-prilutic monastery on the outskirts of the city ...

The sovereign lived more in Alexandrov than in Moscow. His arrival in the capital was short, and even less often and less. Only after the death of his son, he returned to the coffin to Moscow in 1581 and was no longer leaving. Will the library brought? And was she needed to him in the death of three years measured to the grave? .. Did he take care of the transport of "treasury"?

It is known: the supply in the royal train was very small. Or maybe guessing about "curses", inspired forever? ..

Researchers call the most likely places where you can detect the library: Moscow - Kremlin or Alexandrov. A few years ago, the Vologda version arose, but it is little believable. The first two versions are recognized by the scholar world.

Following the enthusiasts on the problems of finding and secrets of the library of Ivan Grozny, they were expressed in press and scientists: the popularity of the topic does not weaken, and historians are forced to react, although they do not like to intervenes the amateurs. On the other hand, it is difficult to call amateurs, for example, V. Osokina writer, Liureda from Alexandrova Mikhail Nikolayevich Kuckingina (the picture of the stay of Ivan Grozny in Alexandrov recreated them with almost calendar accuracy) or a museum restorer from Vologda Nikolai Fedyshin. True, scientists have, as a rule, their categorical opinion, strongly cooling dust. At the end of the last century, Russia has been formed and existed for quite a long time "skeptic school", which was trying to prove the wretchedness of the ancient Russian culture, and therefore - and the impossibility of the existence of any manuscripts and books ... Very tried by S. A. Belokurov, the assembled materials proving that no library Ivan the Terrible has never been. The efforts of enthusiasts have a little dull. But after all, the main argument of Belokurov was the opinion of Peter Arkudia and the Polish-Lithuanian ambassador of Lion Sapega sent to Moscow in 1601 for the sake of finding the library, which all Europe said. Of course, the Messengers of the library did not find, yes in the hearts and wrote to the Vatican, which is the Russian nobles - and those are uneven, go in the summer in the fur coats, Dae Laptg Bread: What's the same here, sorry, culture yes library! Clearly, the Vatican, and Western opponents of Russian culture, very zealously belonged to any manifestations, the opinion of papal missionaries tried to inflate in every way.

But there were other scientists. M. N. Tikhomirov In the time of N. S. Khrushchev, headed the Library search fee, L. I. Brezhnev. The fair proportion of skepticism is quite reasonable - inherent in the opinions of B. A. Rybakov, and S. O. Schmidt.

A very constructive assumption was expressed at different times A. A. Zimin and V. Kuchkin. They suddenly set the question before the scientist, and what if the library of the king of Ivan the Terrible was found long ago, and the books were already separated by scientific storage facilities? This could well happen, especially in the 20-30s. Our century, when active earthworks were conducted in Moscow (construction of metro, sewage, etc.). The workers who laid the super secret line of the Kremlin metro could be stumbled upon the library, the existence of which is not confirmed, but also do not refute the leading metro experts. Considering the regime of "strictest secrecy" in those years around the underground surveys in the Kremlin, and the incompetence of the "competent" NKVD in the matter of ownership of the treasure, the library of Ivan Grozny could have been recruiting and transferring "to the appointment" without an excitement, without explaining where she came from. Now the late head of the manuscripts of the Russian State Library (former Leninki) Professor Viktor Yakovlevich Deregin in 1993 said: "We have 600 thousand manuscripts, of which 60 thousand ancient, more than three hundred Greek (mostly Byzantine). Some of them There are still VI centies of our era. It is possible that among them there are both the books of Sofia Paleologists. And besides our library, unique ancient manuscripts are in the RAS library in St. Petersburg and the State Historical Museum in Moscow. "

It is hard to believe that such an antiquity could enroll in the archive or library "Silent", without causing a question at least one of the scientists: where did the book come from? After all, the departments, and the libraries themselves headed and headed are not the wipers ... somewhere yes, there would be a bike, whose and where the collection comes from. Moreover, so many famous authors in one meeting - such "arrivals" are not every day. Maybe it would be necessary to search if there were no arrivals? ..

And traces of receipt were found. We read the newspaper "Labor" for November 22, 1944: "In the cabinets of the USSR state library named after V. I. Lenin, many thousands of ancient manuscripts and handwritten books are stored. Among others there are five books of a large format in ancient leather bindings from the personal assembly of Ivan the Terrible ... The largest specialist in the ancient Russian handwritten books Professor G.P. Georgievsky says: "Books have been well preserved. Sheets are almost no wishes from time to time. Amazing drawings, masterfully performed by the best artists of the XVI century, have kept the brightness of their colors to the present "."

Surely this "track" can give a certain, if not final, result.

"History of Libraries" - library of ancient Russia. Yaroslav wisely - in Kiev Ivan Grozny - in Moscow. Library history. Ramses II Heads What books were kept in the Ashurbanipal library? Wrong. And when he became a king, I decided to create a big library. The whole history of the development of the human mind is connected with the book, with the library.

"Day of Libraries" - Best Wishes Information and Methodical Center. In the silence of libraries there is essential work. National Library of the Republic of Tatarstan. In 2008, the library was 30 years old. The second place is occupied by the works of V.I. Lenin, translated into 222 languages. Librarians-people of a special breed. What to choose to you - decide for yourself, people, different questions from everyone.

"Creating a library" - make beautiful and comfortable! Standard bibliographic rules should be followed. Ability to create connections (hyperlink). Training seminar for staff staff. 2.3. Inserting hyperlinks to related documents (directory elements). 1.4. Save in HTML format (if possible). 2.2. Insert (enter, copy) the name of the associated documents (directory elements).

"The work of the school library" is the role, the value of the school library in the school information space. Sometimes school libraries are called physics. Information and methodological work. Presentation of material in tabular form. Picking library fund. Competence information. From the requirements for the level of preparation of finishing elementary school:

"Technology Library" - In class Watercolor mug, students created drawings on marching poems. Interest in reading. The main indicators of the library work. Joint reading. Annotation to graduation work. Computer class. Primary School. Library Square - 48 m2 8 racks - 60 m2 Reading room -10 seats. In November 2007, S.Ya. Marshaku turns 120 years since the birth.

"School Library" - the first collection of children's poems, participants in the literary club was released. Work with gifted children. The library attracts teachers, parents to work together. Ensuring the educational process and self-education through information and library services. Spiritually - moral and civil - patriotic education of schoolchildren in a library environment.

Πέργᾰμον ) located in Anatolia , on the west coast of Asia Minor. Currently there is a modern Turkish city Bergama . In the III-II centuries. BC e. Pergam was the capital Pergammsky kingdom Under the rule of dynasty Attalidov.

Library history

The Pergamm Library was founded EUMEN II. and located in the northern part of the Acropolis. She became the second one (after Alexandria) Antiquity library. According to testimony Plutarch It was stored about 200 thousand books. One of the library head in II century. BC e. Was Krathtow Malzor - Greek grammar and philosopher Stoic. He was born in Kilikia , was educated in Tars and then moved to Pergam, and there lived under the auspices of Evemen II and Attal II. . There he founded the Pergamm grammar school; This scientific center was the main competitor of Alexandria. Cratery interested in the work Gomera . Some fragments of his comments " Iliad "And" Odyssey »Was stored scholiastami and other ancient Greek writers.

According to Plutarch , the existence of the Pergamine Library put an end Mark Anthony . He conveyed Cleopatra for Alexandria library All 200 thousand books as a wedding gift.

There are also unchecked information about several sunken ship library for transportation. Of course, any indexes and directories that would confirm or refuted this testimony and reported the size and composition of the library, not survived.

In the Pergamy library there was a large reading room surrounded by numerous shelves. The empty space between the outer walls and shelves served to circulate air. This was done to protect the library from excessive humidity in the warmth climate Anatolia and can be considered as one of the first technologies for preserving manuscripts. In the main reading room stood a statue Athens , goddess wisdom.

Parchment

The invention and the name itself parchment associated with the Pergam's library. When Ptolemy V. Forbidden export papyrus of Egypt , EVMEM II commanded to find an alternative material for writing. This led to the development of the production technology of parchmen, which was made from thin pieces of sheep or goat skin. Despite its high cost, Parchmen reduced the dependence of other countries from exporting Egyptian papyrus. In the future, this invention has played a huge role in preserving the ancient culture and the dissemination of the European Book.

See also

• Libraries of antiquity

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Excerpt characterizing the Pergham Library

On the same night, having gone to the military minister, Bolkonsky went to the army, he himself is not knowing where he will find her, and fearing on the road to Kresres to be intercepted by the French.
In Brynne, all the court population was laid, and gravity in Olmyuz had already been sent. Near Ezelsdorf, Prince Andrei went on the road, according to which the Russian army was moving with the greatest hasty and in the greatest unrest. The road was so damaged by wagons, which was impossible to go in the crew. Taking the Cossack Chief of the Horse and Cossack, Prince Andrei, Hungry and Tired, overtaking the calls, went to find the commander-in-chief and wagon. The most sinister rumors about the position of the army reached him dear, and the type of random Running Army confirmed these rumors.
"CETTE ARMEE RUSSE QUE L" OR DE L "ANGLETERRE A TRANSPORTEE, DES EXTREMITES DE L" UNIVERS, NOUUS ALLONS LUI FAIRE EPROUVER LE MEME D "ULM)", ["This Russian army, which The English gold moved here since the end of the world, it will experience the same fate (the fate of the Ulm Army). "] He recalled the words of the order of Bonaparta of his army before the start of the campaign, and the words of these were equally excited in him surprise to the brilliant hero, the feeling of offended pride and the hope of glory. "And if nothing remains, except to die? He thought. What, if you need! I will do it no worse than others."
Prince Andrei with contempt looked at these endless, prevented teams, carts, parks, artillery and again wagons, wagons and carts of all possible species, which overthrowed one and three, in four rows the dirty road. From all sides, Nazady and ahead, as long as the rumor was heard, the sounds of the wheels, the rumble of the body, cart and flaws, horsepower, honesty, shock, shouts of dulling, cursing soldiers, twins and officers. At the edges of the road were visible, the fallen encouraged and unexposed horses were visible, then broken carts, who, waiting for something, sat lonely soldiers, who separated from the teams soldiers who were sent to the neighboring villages or dragged from the villas of chickens, hay, hay or Bags than that filled.
On the descent and lifts, the crowd was made thick, and there was a continuous moan of screams. Soldiers, drowning on the knee in the mud, picked up tools and wagons on his hands; Knuti beat, slipped the hooves, painted the latches and endured the chest cries. Officers, headed by movement, then forward, then they drove between the hits. Their voices were weakly heard in the middle of the Goula, and on their persons it was seen that they were despairing the opportunity to stop this mess. "Voila Le Cher [" Here is an expensive] Orthodox Hospital, "Bolkonsky thought, remembering the words of Bilibin.