Archaic time. Features of the archaic period - Culturology - Education - File directory - and we argue too! The decomposition of old traditional relations and the emergence of new ones

Archaic period: 7th - 6th centuries BC.

The period of big shifts in the economy is the emergence of money. The social system is the formation of a Greek slave-owning society and a state - a slave-owning republic (in power, not a sole ruler, as in the East, but - the aristocratic elite). Where the demos (farmers, artisans, merchants) triumphed, a democratic republic was established.
The country is divided into regions or city-states - policies. But there is no struggle because of trade ties and military clashes with other peoples, slaves of foreigners. Between the poleis, there is a consciousness of the unity of the Greek world.
The sanctuaries are of general Greek importance, especially the temple of Zeus at Olympia, where from 776 BC. Olympic Games are held.

Architecture

In the 7th century. cities are growing rapidly and construction is expanding. Monumental limestone buildings appear. Basically, these are temples, which were not only religious, but also public buildings.
In the 7th century. various types of buildings are generated:

The simplest one is the temple in antae (takes roots in the Mycenaean megaron). Columns between the ends of the side walls - antas.
Prostyle - 4 columns on the facade, located in front of the ants.
Amphiprostyle - columns on the front and back facades.
Peripter - columns around the entire perimeter of the temple. Most often, there are 6 columns on the facade (hexastyle peripter). The most common type of temple.
Dipter - two rows of columns surround the temple.
The premise of the temple (cella) is divided into 3 parts:
- front - pronaos - serves as a vestibule;
- central - naos, the most extensive;
- an opisthode - for storing houses, with an entrance from the rear facade.

Elements of the order system:
- basement part, three-stage (stylobate);
- column (base, trunk, capital);
- entablature (consisting of an architrave (beam), frieze and cornice) - the overlapping part of the structure.
- a triangular pediment formed by two roof slopes.

There were 2 main orders - Doric (simplicity and masculinity of forms) and Ionic (lightness, harmony, grace, relatively large decorativeness).
In the Doric order, the columns had no bases.
The greatest flowering of the classics of the 5th - 4th centuries. would not have been possible without the great achievements of the archaic period.
Throughout Greece, many temples are being built, especially in the 6th century. Everywhere they are moving to the construction of temples from stone.
Temples were decorated with sculpture (pediment, frieze, metopes).
The most difficult task is to place the multi-figured composition in the triangular field of the pediment.

An unusually wide main façade. The shape of the columns is peculiar - the upper diameter is much narrower than the lower one, bulky capitals have a large extension.
An odd number of columns, the main room divided by a row of columns into two parts (nave) are typically archaic features.
No one of the monuments of the Ionic order has reached us in such a state that it could be viewed in its entirety.

The transition from the archaic to the classics (late 6th - early 5th century)

Temple of Hera (II) at Paestum. The columns are still heavy, but the shape is closer to the classical one.

art

The fine arts (7th - 6th centuries) of the archaic laid the foundation for the future flourishing of classical art, which played such a significant role in the development of world artistic culture.
During this period, all types of art develop rapidly.
The search for a form that expresses the ideal of a beautiful, strong, healthy in body and spirit citizen of the polis. Creative efforts are aimed at mastering the correct construction of the figure, plastic anatomy, transmission of movement. The latter is the most difficult. The complete illusion of movement will be only in the middle. 5 c.
The lawsuit had a great influence - in Egypt and Mesopotamia. For example, from the more perfect Assyrian, they borrowed the composition, interpretation of clothing and hairstyles.
The appearance of a nude athletic figure - kuros (male) and bark (female). Both people and gods were depicted.

Kuros of the Shadow. T. n. Apollo of Shadow. Marble. 560 BC The athletic build is accentuated by broad shoulders and powerful legs. Softer and more voluminous than previously transferred musculature. But the hairstyle is treated decoratively, strongly protruding eyes, a conventional smile.

Even more voluminous and realistic.
Work on the draped figure and attempts to convey movement:

Female statue (goddess with a hare). 560 BC Presumably the iconic statue of Hera. While static, the lower part is in the form of a round pillar. The folds of the chiton are strictly parallel, although the arms and chest are already plastically modeled.
A group of female statues of the 2nd floor is distinguished by a special skill. 6 c.

Peplos bark from the Acropolis of Athens. Marble coloring book. 540 BC

Bark from the Acropolis. Detail. Attempts to match the folds of clothing with body movement. Marble. Excellently crafted. Beautifully painted. Graceful poses - the image of girls of the aristocratic circle.
Temple sculpture (metopes, pediments, zophoric friezes).
Mostly mythological plots.

Metopes from the temple in Paestum speak of the search for new compositional constructions.

Athena and Perseus killing the Gorgon. Metope from Chr. in Selinunte. 2nd floor 6 c. BC. layout in a square.
The most difficult task is the arrangement of the pediment in the field.

Pediment of the Temple of Artemis from the island of Kerkyra. Gorgon. Detail. Fragment. 6 c. BC e. A bold attempt to convey flight - a conditional kneeling pose. Quite flat, poorly modeled terrain.

Painting

Expansion of subject matter, more realistic drawing, different angles of figures, movement, polychromy - these are the achievements of the time of the archaic (7th - 6th centuries).
The silhouette is replaced with an outline drawing to convey details.
In the 6th century. black-figure technique dominates.

the illustrious François Crater. The vase painter Cletius, the potter Ergotim. OK. 570 (named after the archaeologist). 5 belts, mythological scenes, signatures about what is happening. Thoroughness of drawing, variety of movements. The most important masters are Amasis and Exekios. One of the best works of Exekius:

The archaic period is the time of the most intensive development of ancient society, when it acquires a certain specificity in comparison with other slave-owning societies. It was then that classical slavery was formed, the polis as the main form of political organization, a democratic form of government. Ethnic self-awareness is being developed: the Greeks are beginning to perceive themselves as a single people. Concepts are bornHellenes, Hellas - on the one hand, andbarbarians - with another. At the same time, the foundations of ancient culture were laid.

The era of the archaic - the time of the formation of the Greekarchitecture , the main achievements of which are associated with the construction of temples. Greek temples were the centers of social and business life in the polis. They were originally built onacropolis - fortified highlands of the city, later they began to be erected on the main city squares. Unlike Christian temples, ancient Greek sanctuaries were not intended for the gathering of believers. During cult activities, the people remained outside the premises of the temple, seeing it only from the outside. This caused particular attention to the external appearance of the building.

The main type of ancient Greek temple isperipter ("Feathered"), a rectangular temple, surrounded on all sides by a colonnade. Already in the early buildings, the striving for harmony, proportionality of all elements of the architectural whole was clearly expressed. The construction of the temple was subject to certain rules that ensure the balance of the parts of the structure. This is how Greek architecturalorder (from Latin "ordo"-" order ") - a system of proportional relationship between the bearing and the bearing parts of the building. The order knowledge has a stepped base, a number of vertical supports - columns (load-bearing elements) and a beam floor -entablature (part being worn).

In the archaic era, the order took shape in two versions - Doric and Ionic.Doric the style is more masculine, simple and powerful,ionic more elegant, lighter and more elegant. The Doric column is heavy, slightly thickened below the middle. The top of the column -small cap - consists of two stone slabs, a round bottom and a square top. Subsequently, the columns of Doric temples were often replaced by male figures (Atlanteans).

Compared to the Doric, the Ionic column is more slender and elegant. It has a foundation -base , the capital is decorated with two graceful curls -volutes . Cornice - a horizontal ledge on the wall supporting the roof of the building - richly decorated.

In the Hellenistic era, when architecture began to strive for greater splendor,Corinthian a style lavishly decorated with floral motifs.

During the Archaic era, many Doric and Ionic-style temples were erected in various Greek cities. The buildings of the Doric Oredar are the temples of Hera and Olympia, Apollo in Corinth, Demeter in Poseidonia (2nd half of the 6th century BC). Ionian temples - Artemis in Ephesus, Hera on the island of Samos. All ancient Greek temples were covered with multicolored paintings, shining in the sun with many colors.

In the archaic period, andmonumental sculpture - a new art form previously unknown to Greece. The most typical examples of archaic monumental sculpture werekuros and bark. Kuros is a statue of a naked young athlete, bark is a statue of a slender girl in long robes. This is how both ordinary mortals and gods were portrayed, while not an individualized, but a generalized image was created. In male figures, athletic build, strength, courage were emphasized, in female - noble restraint and gentleness. All kuros and barks stand upright, hands are tightly pressed to the body. The eyes are wide open, the corners of the lips are slightly raised (the so-called "archaic smile").

In the archaic era, the art of artists who were engaged inpainted clay vases. These drawings were performed in various techniques, for example, black-figure or red-figure. Vblack-figure vases on the reddish background of clay were applied a drawing made with thick black varnish. Vred-figure on the contrary, the background was covered with black varnish, while the figures retained the natural color of the clay, which made it possible to draw the shapes in more detail. Masters with the help of lines outlined folds of clothes, muscles, facial features. The content of the murals is usually associated with mythology, Homeric epic, depicting everyday scenes.

The most significant masters of black-figure vase painting wereCletius and Exeky (among his most famous works is an amphora depicting Achilles and Ajax playing dice). The largest representative of the red-figure style wasEuphronius .

The shapes of the vessels are as different as their functions: wine and water were stored and mixed in amphoras and craters, cilics and rhytons were intended for drinking, lecythians were used for cult purposes, and so on.

The main achievement of the archaic era in the field of literature was the creationlyric poetry (7th century BC), which replaced the heroic epic. For the first time in the history of ancient culture, poetry spoke about the personal experiences of a person.

Term lyrics associated with the lyre: the ancient Greek poets did not just read, but sang their poems, accompanying themselves on the lyre or cithara. This is probably why the lyre has become a symbol of poetry and musical art. Another name for poetry performed with musical accompaniment ismelika , from the Greek word "melos"- song, melody.

The island of Lesvos became the center of the lyrics. Here their own music and poetry studios arose early, where people from different regions of the Hellenic world came to study. One of these schools, for noble girls, was headed bySappho (Sappho), who lived in the 6th century BC. - an ingeniously gifted poetess of antiquity, intelligent, beautiful herself. Her work can be considered a classic example of love poetry.

Another remarkable representative of the Lesbos school of music and poetry wasAlkey , contemporary of Sappho. Favorite themes of his work - political struggle, exile, banquet feast, love.

The works ofArchilochus , who, instead of a hexameter, introduced new poetic dimensions (iambic, trocheus) into literature,Anacreonta - the singer of worldly pleasures,Tirtea , which has become a symbol of poetry that inspires warriors to battle,Pindara - the creator of solemn ode-hymns in honor of his homeland, the winners of Greek sports games.

The greatest cultural achievements of the Greek archaic also include the birth of drama, which became a synthesis of the previously existing types of literature, and the emergence of the "science of all sciences" - philosophy. Finally, the creation of an alphabetic writing is associated with the archaic era: having supplemented and transformed the Phoenician syllabic system, the Greeks invented an accessible way for everyone to record information, which formed the basis of the European alphabets.

The achievements of ancient Greek civilization formed the basis of European culture

Early greece

The turn of the III-II millennium BC is the most important stage in the history of Europe. It was then that in the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula and on the adjacent islands, societies divided into classes arose.

Around 2500 BC large metallurgical centers are being created on many islands of the Aegean Sea and on the mainland. Significant successes are observed in ceramic production, where the potter's wheel began to be used. Thanks to the development of navigation, contacts between different regions are strengthened, technical and cultural innovations are spread. Equally tangible was the progress in agriculture associated with the creation of a new multicultural type (the so-called Mediterranean triad), which is based on the cultivation of cereals, primarily barley, grapes and olives. The neighborhood of the ancient civilizations of the Near East also greatly influenced the development of this region.

Painted vessel from the Old Palace at Festa. Around the XIX-XVIII centuries. BC.

The initial stages of the formation of a class society and state in this region have not yet been sufficiently studied, and this is mainly due to the fact that researchers have relatively few sources at their disposal. Archaeological materials related to this period cannot illuminate political history, the nature of social relations, and the most ancient writing system that appeared in Crete (the so-called Linear A) has not yet been deciphered. Subsequently, the Greeks of the Balkan Peninsula adapted this letter to their language (the so-called Linear B). It was deciphered only in 1953 by the English scientists M. Ventris and J. Chadwick. But all texts are documents of economic reporting, and therefore the amount of information provided by them is limited. Certain information about the society of the 2nd millennium BC preserved the famous poems of the Greeks "Iliad" and "Odyssey", as well as some myths. However, it is difficult to interpret these sources historically, since reality in them is artistically transformed, ideas and realities of different times are fused together and it is extremely difficult to isolate what undoubtedly belongs to the 2nd millennium BC.

According to some researchers, it is quite possible that the first centers of statehood appeared on the Balkan Peninsula in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. But the process of the formation of a class society and statehood in the southern part of the Balkan region was interrupted by the invasion of tribes from the north. Around the XXII century. BC. here the Greek tribes proper appeared, calling themselves Achaeans or Danes. The old, pre-Greek population, whose ethnicity has not been established, was partially displaced or destroyed by newcomers, partially assimilated. The conquerors were at a lower level of development, and this circumstance affected a certain difference in the fate of two parts of the region: the mainland and the island of Crete. Crete was not affected by this process and therefore for several centuries represented the zone of the most rapid socio-economic, political and cultural progress.

Minoan civilization

The Bronze Age civilization that emerged in Crete is commonly referred to as the Minoan. This name was given to it by the English archaeologist A. Evans, who first discovered the monuments of this civilization during the excavation of the palace at Knossos. Greek mythological tradition considered Knossos to be the seat of King Minos, the powerful ruler of Crete and many other islands of the Aegean. Here, Queen Pasiphae gave birth to the Minotaur (half-man, half-bull), for whom Daedalus built a labyrinth in Knossos.

In the second half of the 3rd - the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, apparently, all the lands suitable for agriculture, the leading branch of the economy of Crete, were developed. In all likelihood, cattle breeding also played an important role. Significant progress was observed in the craft. The growth of labor productivity, the creation of a surplus product led to the fact that part of it could be used in intercommunal exchange. For Crete, this was of particular importance, since the island lay at the crossroads of ancient sea routes.

At the turn of the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC. the first states emerged in Crete. Initially, there were four of them with centers-palaces in Knossos, Festa, Mallia, Kato-Zakro. It is the appearance of palaces that testifies to the class nature of society and the development of statehood.

The era of "palace civilization" in Crete spans about 600 years: from 2000 to 1400 BC. Around 1700 BC the palaces were destroyed. According to some scientists, this was caused by natural disasters (most likely, a grand earthquake), others see this as the result of social conflicts, a consequence of the struggle of the masses. However, the outbreak of the catastrophe delayed development for a short time. Soon, on the site of the destroyed palaces, new ones appeared, surpassing the old ones in monumentality and luxury.

We know a little more about the era of "new palaces". Well researched, for example, the four palaces mentioned above, a number of settlements, necropolises. The palace of Knossos, excavated by A. Evans, is the best studied - a grandiose structure on a common platform (about 1 hectare). Although only one floor has survived to this day, it is clear that the building was two- and possibly three-story. The palace had an excellent water supply and sewerage system, terracotta baths in special rooms, thoughtful ventilation and lighting. Many household items are made at a high artistic level, some of them are made of precious metals. The walls of the palace were decorated with magnificent paintings that reproduced the surrounding nature or scenes from the life of its inhabitants. Most of the basement floor was occupied by storerooms, which stored wine, olive oil, grain, local handicrafts, as well as goods from distant countries. The palace also housed craft workshops, where jewelers, potters, and vase painters worked.

The question of the social and political organization of Cretan society is solved by scientists in different ways, but on the basis of the available data, it can be assumed that the basis of the economic life of the state was the palace economy. The heyday of Cretan society was probably a theocracy: in one person, the functions of the king and the high priest were combined. Slaves had already appeared, but their number remained insignificant.

The apogee of the Minoan civilization falls on the 16th - first half of the 15th century. BC. At the beginning of this period, all Crete was unified under the rule of the Knossos rulers. Greek tradition considers King Minos to be the first "lord of the sea" - he built a large fleet, destroyed piracy and established his dominance in the Aegean Sea. At the end of the 15th century. BC. a catastrophe struck Crete that dealt the mortal blow to the Minoan civilization. Obviously, it happened due to a grandiose volcanic eruption on the island of Thira. Most of the settlements and palaces were destroyed. Taking advantage of this, the Achaeans invaded the island from the Balkans. From the foremost center of the Mediterranean, Crete turns into a province of Achaean Greece.

Achaean civilization

The heyday of the civilization of Achaean Greece comes in the XV-XIII centuries. BC. The center of this civilization was, obviously, Argolis. Expanding, it then covered the entire Peloponnese, Central Greece (Attica, Boeotia, Phocis), a significant part of Northern Greece (Thessaly), as well as many islands of the Aegean Sea.

As in Crete, palaces played an important role in the life of society. The most significant of them are discovered in Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, Athens, Thebes, Orchomenos, Iolca. But the Achaean palaces differ sharply from the Cretan ones: they are all powerful citadels. The most impressive example is the citadel of Tiryns, whose walls are lined with huge blocks of limestone, sometimes reaching 12 tons in weight. The thickness of the walls exceeded 4.5 m, while the height only in the surviving part was 7.5 m.

Like the Cretan palaces, the Achaean palaces have the same layout, but they are characterized by a clear symmetry. The palace of Pilos has been studied best of all by archaeologists. It was two-story and consisted of several dozen rooms: ceremonial, sacred, rooms of the king and queen, their households: warehouses where grain, wine, olive oil, household items were stored; utility rooms. An important part of the palace was an arsenal with a stock of weapons. The palace had an established water supply and sewerage system. The walls of many rooms were decorated with paintings, often with battle scenes.

Extremely important for the history of the 2nd millennium BC. present the results of excavations begun by Greek archaeologists in 1967 on the island of Thira - the southernmost of the Cyclades group. Under a layer of volcanic ash, the remains of a city that perished in a volcanic eruption were found here. Excavations have uncovered cobbled streets, large buildings, from which the second and even third floors with staircases leading to them have been preserved. The murals on the walls of the buildings are striking: blue monkeys, stylized antelopes, two fighting boys, one of them has a special glove on his hand. Against the background of red, yellow and green rocks covered with grass and moss, red lilies on yellow stems and swallows flying above them. Apparently, this is how the artist painted a picture of the arrival of spring, and the painting makes it possible to judge how this blooming island looked like before a catastrophe befell it. About the same houses in which they lived, on which ships the then Tyrenians sailed, can be judged by another painting, which, obviously, depicts a panorama of the city and the sea with many ships.

Economy of the Achaeans

The basis of the economic structure of the Achaean society was the palace economy, which included large craft workshops - for the processing of agricultural products, spinning and sewing, metallurgical and metalworking, making tools and weapons. The palace economy also controlled the main types of craft activities throughout the territory; metalworking was under especially strict control.

The owner of the land, as follows from the documents of the Pilos archives, was the palace. All lands were divided into two categories: privately owned and communal. The lowest class of society were slaves, but there were relatively few of them, and they mainly belonged to the palace. Slaves differed in their position, and there was no clear line between slaves and freemen. Formally free community members constituted an important social group. They had their own plots of land, house, economy, but depended on the palace economically and politically. The dominant stratum included, first of all, a developed bureaucratic apparatus - central and local. The head of the state was the king ("wanaka"), who had political and sacred functions.

Political events

The political history of Achaean Greece is poorly known. Some scholars write about a single Achaean state under the hegemony of Mycenae. However, it is more correct to consider that each palace is the center of an independent state, between which military conflicts often arose. This, however, did not exclude the possibility of a temporary unification of the Achaean kingdoms. Apparently, this was the case during the campaign against Troy, the events of which formed the basis of the Iliad and the Odyssey. It is possible that the Trojan War is one of the episodes of the broad colonization movement that began in the second half of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Achaean settlements appeared on the western and southern coasts of Asia Minor, the islands of Rhodes and Cyprus were actively settled, Achaean trading posts were opened in Sicily and southern Italy. The Achaeans participated in that powerful onslaught on the coastal countries of the Near East, which is usually called the movement of the "sea peoples".

In the XIII century. BC. the prosperous Achaean states began to feel the approach of terrible events. In many places new fortifications are being erected and old ones being repaired. As evidenced by archaeological excavations, the catastrophe broke out at the very end of the 13th century. BC. Almost all palaces and most of the settlements were destroyed. The agony of the Achaean civilization lasted for about a hundred years, and at the end of the XII century. BC. the last Achaean palace in Iolka perished. The population was partially destroyed, partially entrenched in areas unsuitable for habitation, or even emigrated from the country altogether.

Scientists have long been looking for the reasons for these fateful events in the history of Greece. There are a number of hypotheses explaining the destruction of the Achaean civilization. The most convincing, in our opinion, is the following. At the end of the XIII century. BC. northern peoples moved to Greece, including the Dorian Greeks, as well as other tribes. Mass migration, however, did not happen then, and only later did the Dorians gradually begin to penetrate the devastated territory. The old Achaean population survived only in some areas, for example, in Attica. The Achaeans displaced from Greece settled eastward, occupying the islands of the Aegean Sea, the western coast of Asia Minor and Cyprus.

Dark Ages of Greece

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XI-IX centuries BC e. in the history of Greece, scientists call the dark ages. The main sources of this period are archaeological materials and epic poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey". The poems describe the campaign of the Achaeans near Troy, the capture of the city and the return home after many adventures of one of the heroes of the Trojan War - Odysseus. Thus, the main content of the poems should reflect the life of the Achaean society at the very end of its heyday. But Homer himself, most likely, lived already in the 8th century. BC. and he knew many of the realities, everyday life and relationships of the past poorly. Moreover, he perceived the events of the past through the prism of his time. Finally, it is necessary to take into account the general features of the epic: exaggeration, certain stereotypes in stories about heroes and their life, deliberate archaization.

During the period described, the main occupation of the Greek population was still agriculture. Apparently, most of the cultivated land was occupied by cereals, horticulture and winemaking played an important role; olives continued to be one of the leading crops. Cattle breeding also developed. According to Homer's poems, cattle acted as the "universal equivalent." Thus, in the Iliad, a large tripod is valued at twelve bulls, and a skilled craftswoman at four bulls.

The origin of the foundations of Greek society

Important changes took place in handicraft production, primarily in metallurgy and metalworking. It is then that iron begins to be widely used. The development of this metal, the production process of which was simpler in comparison with bronze, had enormous consequences. The need for production cooperation of a number of families disappeared, and opportunities arose for the economic independence of the patriarchal family, centralized production, storage and distribution of iron ceased to justify itself, the economic need for a bureaucratic apparatus, characteristic of all Achaean states, disappeared.

The leading figure in the Greek economy was the free farmer. A somewhat different situation developed in those areas where the Dorian conquerors conquered the local Achaean population, for example, in Sparta. The Dorians conquered the Eurotas Valley and made the local population dependent on themselves.

The main form of organization of society was the polis as a special form of community. The citizens of the policy were the heads of the patriarchal families that were part of it. Each family was an economically independent unit, which also determined their political equality. And although the nascent nobility sought to bring the community under their control, this process was still far from complete. The polis community performed two important functions:

• protection of the land and population from the claims of neighbors
• regulation of intra-community relations.

Only such cities as Sparta, where there was a conquered population, in this era acquired the features of primitive state formations.

Thus, by the end of the period under review, Greece was a world of hundreds of small and smallest polis-communities that united peasant farmers. It was a world where the main economic unit was a patriarchal family, economically independent and almost independent, with a simple way of life, lack of external ties, a world where the top of society had not yet sharply separated from the bulk of the population, where the exploitation of man by man was just emerging. Under the primitive forms of social organization, there were still no forces capable of forcing the bulk of producers to give away the surplus product. But this was precisely the economic potential of Greek society, which was revealed in the next historical era and ensured its rapid rise.

Archaic Greece

The archaic period in the history of Greece is usually called the VIII-VI centuries. BC. According to some researchers, this is the time of the most intensive development of ancient society. Indeed, over the course of three centuries, many important discoveries were made that determined the nature of the technical basis of ancient society, those socio-economic and political phenomena developed that gave the ancient society a certain specificity in comparison with other slave-owning societies:

• classical slavery;
• the system of money circulation and the market;
• the main form of political organization is the policy;
• the concept of the sovereignty of the people and a democratic form of government.

At the same time, the main ethical norms and principles of morality, aesthetic ideals were developed, which influenced the ancient world throughout its history until the emergence of Christianity. Finally, during this period, the main phenomena of ancient culture were born:

• philosophy and science,
• main genres of literature,
• theatre,
• order architecture,
• sport.

To more clearly imagine the dynamics of the development of society in the archaic period, let us give the following comparison:

Around 800 BC e. the Greeks lived in a limited area of ​​the south of the Balkan Peninsula, the islands of the Aegean Sea and the western coast of Asia Minor.	Around 500 BC e. they already occupy the shores of the Mediterranean from Spain to the Levant and from Africa to the Crimea.
Around 800 BC e. Greece is essentially a rural world, a world of self-sufficient small communities.	By 500 BC e. Greece is already a mass of small cities with local markets, monetary relations powerfully invade the economy, trade ties cover the entire Mediterranean, and objects of exchange are not only luxury goods, but also everyday goods.
Around 800 BC e. Greek society is a simple, primitive social structure with a predominance of the peasantry, little different from it aristocracy and with an insignificant number of slaves.	Around 500 BC e. Greece has already gone through an era of great social changes, the slave of the classical type is becoming one of the main elements of the social structure, along with the peasantry, there are other socio-professional groups; various forms of political organization are known: monarchy, tyranny, oligarchy, aristocratic and democratic republics.
In 800 BC. e. in Greece there are still practically no temples, theaters, stadiums.	In 500 BC. e. Greece is a country with many beautiful public buildings, the ruins of which still fascinate us today. Lyric poetry, tragedy, comedy, and natural philosophy arise and develop.

The decomposition of old traditional relations and the emergence of new ones

The meteoric rise, prepared by the previous development, the spread of iron tools, had many consequences for society. The increase in labor productivity in agriculture and handicrafts led to an increase in the surplus product. An increasing number of people were freed from the agricultural sphere, which ensured the rapid growth of handicrafts. The separation of the agricultural and handicraft sectors of the economy entailed a regular exchange between them, the emergence of a market and a universal equivalent - minted coins. A new type of wealth - money - begins to compete with the old one - land ownership, destroying traditional relations.

As a result, there is a rapid decomposition of primitive communal relations and the emergence of new forms of socio-economic and political organization of society. This process proceeds in different ways in different parts of Hellas, but everywhere it entails the maturation of social conflicts between the emerging aristocracy and the ordinary population, primarily the communal peasants, and then other strata.

Modern researchers usually attribute the formation of the Greek aristocracy to the 8th century. BC e. The aristocracy of that time is a limited group of people, which has a special, obligatory lifestyle and system of values. She occupied a predominant position in the sphere of public life, especially in the administration of justice, played a leading role in the war, since only noble warriors were heavily armed, and therefore the battles were essentially the duels of the aristocrats. The aristocracy strove to completely bring the rank-and-file members of society under their control, to turn them into an exploited mass. According to modern researchers, the offensive of the aristocracy against ordinary fellow citizens began in the 8th century. BC e. Little is known about the details of this process, but its main results can be judged on the example of Athens, where the strengthening of the influence of the aristocracy led to the creation of a well-defined estate structure, to a gradual reduction in the layer of free peasants and an increase in the number of dependent.

"Great Greek colonization"

Closely related to this situation is such a phenomenon of enormous historical significance as the “great Greek colonization”. Since the middle of the VIII century. BC e. the Greeks were forced to leave their homeland and move to other countries.

For three centuries, they created many colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Colonization developed in three main directions:

• western (Sicily, southern Italy, southern France and even the east coast of Spain),
• northern (Thracian coast of the Aegean Sea, the area of ​​the straits leading from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea, and its coast),
• southeast (the coast of North Africa and the Levant).

Modern researchers believe that its main incentive was the lack of land. Greece suffered from both absolute agrarian overpopulation (an increase in population due to the general economic recovery) and relative (lack of land among the poorest peasants due to the concentration of land ownership in the hands of the nobility). The reasons for colonization also include the political struggle, which usually reflected the main social contradiction of the era - the struggle for land, as a result of which the defeated in the civil war were often forced to leave their homeland and move overseas. There were also trade motives: the desire of the Greeks to take control of the trade routes.

Moschophor ("carrying the calf"). Acropolis. Athens. Around 570 BC

The pioneers of Greek colonization were the cities of Chalkis and Eretria located on the island of Euboea - in the 8th century. BC, apparently, the most advanced cities in Greece, the most important centers of metallurgical production. In the future, Corinth, Megara, the cities of Asia Minor, especially Miletus, were included in the colonization.

Colonization had a huge impact on the development of ancient Greek society, especially in the economic sphere. The inability to establish the necessary branches of the craft in the new place led to the fact that very soon the colonies established the closest economic ties with the old centers of the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor. From here, both in the colony and the local population neighboring them, Greek handicrafts, especially artistic ones, as well as some types of agricultural products (the best varieties of wines, olive oil, etc.) began to arrive. In return, the colonies supplied Greece with grain and other food products, as well as raw materials (timber, metal, etc.). As a result, the Greek handicraft received an impetus for further development, and agriculture began to acquire a commercial character. In this way, colonization muted social conflicts in Greece, driving out the mass of landless people and at the same time contributing to a change in the social and economic structure of Greek society.

Changes in the socio-political situation

The offensive of the aristocracy on the rights of the demos reached its climax in the 7th century. BC, causing reciprocal resistance. In Greek society, a special social stratum of people appears who, most often through crafts and trade, made significant wealth, led an aristocratic lifestyle, but did not have the hereditary privileges of the nobility. “Money is held in high esteem. Wealth has mixed the breeds, ”the poet Theognides of Megar notes bitterly. This new layer was eagerly eager to rule, thereby becoming an ally of the peasants in the struggle against the nobility. The first successes in this struggle were most often associated with the establishment of written laws that limited the arbitrariness of the aristocracy.

Resistance to the growing domination of the nobility was facilitated by at least three circumstances. Around 675-600 BC. thanks to technological progress, there is a kind of revolution in military affairs. Heavy armor becomes available to ordinary citizens, and the aristocracy is deprived of its advantage in the military sphere. Due to the scarcity of the country's natural resources, the Greek aristocracy could not equal the aristocracy of the East. Due to the peculiarities of the historical development in Greece of the Iron Age, there were no such economic institutions (similar to the temple farms of the East), on the basis of which the peasantry could be exploited. Even the peasants who were dependent on the aristocrats were not economically connected with the farms of the latter. All this predetermined the fragility of the rule of the nobility in society. Finally, the force that prevented the strengthening of the position of the aristocrats was their ethics. It had an “atonal” (competitive) character: each aristocrat, in accordance with the ethical norms inherent in this layer, strove to be the first everywhere - on the battlefield, in sports, in politics. This system of values ​​was created by the nobility earlier and transferred to a new historical period, when it needed the rallying of all forces to ensure domination. However, the aristocracy could not achieve this.

The emergence of tyranny

Aggravation of social conflicts in the 7th-6th centuries. BC. led to the birth of tyranny in many Greek cities, i.e. the sole authority of the ruler.

At that time, the concept of "tyranny" did not yet have a negative connotation inherent in it today. The tyrants pursued an active foreign policy, created powerful armed forces, decorated and improved their cities. However, early tyranny as a regime could not last long. The historical doom of tyranny was explained by its internal contradiction. The overthrow of the rule of the nobility and the struggle against it were impossible without the support of the masses. The peasantry, which benefited from this policy, initially supported the tyrants, but when the threat emanating from the aristocracy weakened, they gradually came to the realization that a tyrannical regime was unnecessary.

Tyranny was not a stage characteristic of the life of all policies. It was most typical for those cities that, in the archaic era, became large trade and craft centers. The process of formation of the classical polis due to the relative abundance of sources is best known to us in the example of Athens.

Athens option

The history of Athens in the archaic era is the history of the formation of a democratic polis. The monopoly on political power in the period under review belonged here to the nobility - the Eupatrides, which gradually turned ordinary citizens into a dependent mass. This process is already in the VII century. BC. led to outbreaks of social conflict.

Fundamental changes take place at the beginning of the 6th century. BC, and they are associated with the reforms of Solon. The most important of these was the so-called sisakhfiya (“shaking off the burden”). As a result of this reform, the peasants, who, due to their debts, had essentially turned into executive tenants of their own land, regained their status as owners. At the same time, it was forbidden to turn the Athenians into slavery for debts. The reforms that undermined the political dominance of the nobility were of great importance. From now on, the amount of political rights depended not on nobility, but on the size of property (all citizens of the policy were divided into four property categories). In accordance with this division, the military organization of Athens was also rebuilt. A new governing body was created - the council (bule), the importance of the people's assembly increased.

Solon's reforms, despite their radicalism, by no means solved all the problems. The exacerbation of the social struggle in Athens led in 560 BC. to the establishment of the tyranny of Peisistratus and his sons, which held out here intermittently until 510 BC. Pisistratus pursued an active foreign policy, strengthening the position of Athens on the sea trade routes. Crafts flourished in the city, trade developed, and a lot of construction was carried out. Athens turned into one of the largest economic centers in Hellas. Under the successors of Peisistratus, this regime fell, which again led to an exacerbation of social contradictions. Soon after 509 BC. e. under the leadership of Cleisthenes, a new series of reforms is being carried out, finally establishing the democratic system. The most important of them is the reform of the electoral law: from now on, all citizens, regardless of their property status, had equal political rights. The system of territorial division was changed, destroying the influence of the aristocrats on the ground.

Sparta variant

Sparta gives a different version of development. Having captured Laconica and enslaved the local population, the Doryans already in the IX century. BC. created a state in Sparta. Born very early as a result of the conquest, it retained many primitive features in its structure. Subsequently, the Spartans in the course of two wars sought to conquer Messenia, an area in the west of the Peloponnese. The already brewing internal social conflict between the nobility and ordinary citizenship erupted in Sparta during the Second Messenian War. In its main features, it resembled the conflicts that existed in other parts of Greece at about the same time. A long struggle between the rank and file Spartans and the aristocracy led to the reorganization of Spartan society. A system was created, which at a later time was called Likurgov, after the name of the legislator who allegedly established it. Of course, tradition simplifies the picture, for this system was not created immediately, but took shape gradually. Having overcome the internal crisis, Sparta was able to conquer Messinia and turned into the most powerful state of the Peloponnese and, perhaps, the whole of Greece.

All the land in Laconia and Messenia was divided into equal plots - clerics, which each Spartiat received in temporary possession, after his death the land was returned to the state. Other measures also served to strive for complete equality of the Spartans:

• a harsh educational system aimed at the formation of an ideal warrior;
• the strictest regulation of all aspects of the life of citizens - the Spartans lived as if they were in a military camp;
• the prohibition to engage in agriculture, craft and trade, the use of gold and silver;
• limiting contact with the outside world.

The political system was also reformed. Along with the kings who performed the functions of military leaders, judges and priests, the council of elders (gerusia) and the people's assembly (appella), a new governing body appeared - the college of five ephors (overseers). Ephorat was the supreme control body, making sure that no one deviated a step from the principles of the Spartan system, which became the object of pride of the Spartans, who believed that they had achieved the ideal of equality.

Historiography traditionally views Sparta as a militarized, militaristic state, and some authoritative experts even call it a "police" state. This definition has its own reason. The basis on which the "community of equals" was based, that is, the collective of equal and full-fledged Spartiats, completely not engaged in productive labor, was the exploited mass of the enslaved population of Laconian and Messenia — the helots. Scientists have been arguing for many years about how to determine the position of this segment of the population. Many tend to think of helots as state slaves. The helots owned plots of land, tools of labor, had economic independence, but they were obliged to transfer a certain share of the harvest to their owners - the Spartiats, ensuring their existence. According to the calculations of modern researchers, this share was equal to approximately 1 / 6-1 / 4 of the harvest. Deprived of all political rights, helots entirely belonged to the state, which disposed not only of their property, but also of their lives. The slightest protest from the helots was severely punished.

In the Spartan polis, there was another social group - the periecs ("living around"), the descendants of the Dorians who were not included in the citizens of Sparta. They lived in communities, enjoyed internal self-government under the supervision of Spartan officials, and were engaged in agriculture, crafts and trade. Perieki were obliged to deploy military contingents. Similar social conditions and close to the Spartan system are known in Crete, in Argos, Thessaly and other regions.

Archaic culture

Ethnic identity

Like all other areas of life, Greek culture experienced rapid changes during the Archaic era. During these centuries, the development of ethnic identity took place, the Greeks gradually began to realize themselves as a single people, different from other peoples, whom they began to call barbarians. Ethnic identity found its manifestation in some social institutions. According to Greek tradition, from 776 BC. the Olympic Games began to be held, to which only Greeks were allowed.

Ethics

In the archaic era, the main features of the ethics of ancient Greek society were formed. Its distinctive feature was the combination of a nascent sense of collectivism and an agonistic (adversarial) beginning. The formation of the polis as a special type of community, which replaced the loose associations of the "heroic" era, gave rise to a new, polis morality - collectivist in its essence, since the existence of an individual outside the framework of the polis was impossible. The development of this morality was also facilitated by the military organization of the polis (the formation of the phalanx). The highest valor of a citizen consisted in defending his policy: "It is sweet to lose life, among the soldiers of the valiant fallen, to a brave husband in battle for the sake of his homeland" - these words of the Spartan poet Tirtheus perfectly expressed the mentality of the new era, characterizing the system of values ​​prevailing at that time. However, the new morality retained the moral principles of Homeric time, with its leading principle of competition. The nature of political reforms in the polises determined the preservation of this morality, since it was not the aristocracy who was deprived of their rights, but ordinary citizenship was raised in terms of the volume of political rights to the level of the aristocracy. Because of this, the traditional ethics of the aristocracy spread among the masses, albeit in a modified form: the most important principle is who will serve the policy better.

Religion

Religion also experienced a certain transformation. The formation of a single Greek world with all local features entailed the creation of a pantheon common to all Greeks. This is evidenced by Hesiod's poem "Theogony". The cosmogonic ideas of the Greeks did not fundamentally differ from the ideas of many other peoples. It was believed that Chaos, Earth (Gaia), the underworld (Tartarus) and Eros - the life principle - originally existed. Gaia gave birth to the starry sky - Uranus, who became the first ruler of the world and the spouse of Gaia. From Uranus and Gaia, the second generation of gods was born - the titans. The titan Kronos (god of agriculture) overthrew the power of Uranus. In turn, the children of Kronos - Hades, Poseidon, Zeus, Hestia, Demeter and Hera - under the leadership of Zeus overthrew Kronos and seized power over the Universe. Thus, the Olympian gods are the third generation of deities. Zeus, the ruler of the sky, thunder and lightning, became the supreme deity. Poseidon was considered the god of moisture that irrigates the earth and the sea, Hades (Pluto) - the lord of the underworld. Zeus's wife Hera was the patroness of marriage, Hestia was the goddess of the hearth. Demeter was revered as the patroness of agriculture, whose daughter Cora, once abducted by Hades, became his wife.

From the marriage of Zeus and Hera, Hebe was born - the goddess of youth, Ares - the god of war, Hephaestus, personifying the volcanic fire hidden in the bowels of the earth, and also patronizing artisans, especially blacksmiths. Among the descendants of Zeus, Apollo stood out - the god of the light principle in nature, often called Phoebus (Shining). According to myths, he defeated the dragon Python, and at the place where he performed his feat, and it was in Delphi, the Greeks erected a temple in honor of Apollo. This god was considered the patron saint of the arts, a healer god, but at the same time a deity bringing death, spreading epidemics; he later became the patron saint of colonization. The role of Apollo grows more and more over time, and he begins to oust Zeus.

Apollo's sister Artemis is the goddess of the hunt and patroness of youth. The many-sided functions of Hermes, originally the god of material wealth, then trade, the patron of deceivers and thieves, and finally, the patron of speakers and athletes; Hermes also took the souls of the dead to the underworld. Dionysus (or Bacchus) was revered as the deity of the producing forces of nature, viticulture and winemaking. Athena, who was born from the head of Zeus, was in great honor - the goddess of wisdom, of all rational principles, but also of war (unlike Ares, who personified reckless courage). The constant companion of Athena is the goddess of victory Nike, the symbol of Athena's wisdom is the owl. Aphrodite, born of sea foam, was worshiped as the goddess of love and beauty.

For the Greek religious consciousness, especially at this stage of development, the idea of ​​the omnipotence of the deity was not characteristic; a faceless force reigned over the world of the Olympian gods - Fate (Ananka). Due to political fragmentation and the absence of a priestly estate, the Greeks did not develop a single religion. A large number of very close, but not identical, religious systems arose. As the polis worldview developed, ideas about the special connection of individual deities with one or another polis, whose patrons they acted, took shape. Thus, the goddess Athena is especially closely associated with the city of Athens, Hera with Samos and Argos, Apollo and Artemis with Delos, Apollo with Delphi, Zeus with Olympia, etc.

The Greek worldview is characterized not only by polytheism, but also by the idea of ​​the general animate nature of nature. Every natural phenomenon, every river, mountain, grove had its own deity. From the point of view of the Greek, there was no insurmountable line between the world of people and the world of the gods; heroes acted as an intermediary link between them. Such heroes as Hercules, for their exploits, joined the world of the gods. The gods of the Greeks were themselves anthropomorphic, they experienced human passions and could suffer like people.

Architecture

The Archaic era is the time of the formation of architecture. The primacy of public, primarily sacred, architecture is indisputable. The dwellings of that time are simple and primitive, all the forces of society are turned to monumental structures, primarily temples. Among them, the temples of the gods, the patrons of the community, took precedence. The emerging sense of unity of the civilian community found its expression in the creation of such temples, which were considered the habitat of the gods. Early temples repeated the structure of the megaron of the 2nd millennium BC. The temple of a new type was born in Sparta - the most ancient city of Hellas. A characteristic feature of Greek architecture is the use of orders, that is, a special construction system that emphasizes the architectonics of the building, gives expressiveness to the supporting and carried structural elements, revealing their function. An order building usually has a stepped base, a series of load-bearing vertical supports - columns that supported the carried parts - were placed on it - an entablature that reflected the structure of the girder floor and roof. Initially, the temples were built on the acropolis - fortified heights, ancient settlement centers. Later, in connection with the general democratization of society, changes took place in the location of the temples. They are now being erected in the lower city, most often in the agora - the main square, the former center of social and business life of the polis.

The role of temples in Greek society

The temple as an institution has contributed to the development of various types of art. The custom of giving gifts to the temple was established early, part of the spoils captured from enemies, weapons, gifts on the occasion of getting rid of danger, etc. were donated to him. A significant part of such gifts were works of art. An important role was played by the temples that gained pan-Greek popularity, primarily the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. The rivalry of first noble families, and then of polis, contributed to the fact that the best works of art were concentrated here, and the territory of the sanctuary became something of a museum.

Sculpture

Black-figure amphora. 540s BC.

In the archaic era, monumental sculpture appears - an art form previously unknown to Greece. The oldest sculptures were images, roughly carved from wood, often inlaid with ivory and covered with sheets of bronze. Improvements in the technique of stone processing not only affected architecture, but also led to the emergence of stone sculpture, and in the technique of metal processing - to the casting of sculpture from bronze. In the VII-VI centuries. BC. sculpture is dominated by two types: the nude male figure and the draped female figure. The birth of the statuesque type of the nude figure of a man is associated with the main trends in the development of society. The statue depicts a beautiful and valiant citizen, a winner in sports, who made his hometown famous. The same type was used to make tombstones and images of deities. The appearance of the relief is mainly associated with the custom of erecting tombstones. Subsequently, reliefs in the form of complex multi-figured compositions became an indispensable part of the entablature of the temple. Statues and reliefs were usually painted.

Vase painting

Greek monumental painting is much less well known than vase painting. On the example of the latter, the main trends in the development of art are best traced: the emergence of realistic principles, the interaction of local art and influences that came from the East. In the VII - early VI century. BC. dominated by Corinthian and Rhodes vases with variegated paintings of the so-called carpet style. They usually depicted floral designs and various animals and fantastic creatures arranged in a row. In the VI century. BC. in vase painting, the black-figure style dominates: the figures painted with black varnish stood out sharply against the reddish background of clay. Paintings on black-figure vases often consisted of multi-figure compositions on mythological subjects: various episodes from the life of the Olympic gods, the exploits of Hercules and the Trojan War were popular. Less common were plots related to the daily life of people: the battle of hoplites, competitions of athletes, feast scenes, a round dance of girls, etc.

Since some of the images were executed in the form of black silhouettes against a background of clay, they give the impression of being flat. Vases, made in different cities, have only their characteristic features. The black-figure style flourished in Athens. Attic black-figure vases were distinguished by their graceful forms, high manufacturing techniques, and plot diversity. Some vase painters signed their paintings, and thanks to this we know, for example, the name of Cletius, who painted a magnificent vessel for wine (crater): the painting consists of several belts on which multi-figured compositions are presented. Another splendid example of painting is the Kilik Eksekia. The vase painter occupied the entire round surface of the wine bowl with one scene: the god Dionysus is reclining on a ship sailing under a white sail, grape vines twine near the mast, heavy bunches hang down. Seven dolphins dive around, in which, according to myth, Dionysus turned Tyrrhenian pirates.

Alphabetic writing and philosophy

The greatest achievement of the Greek culture of the Archaic era was the creation of alphabetic writing. By transforming the Phoenician syllable system, the Greeks created a simple way to record information. In order to learn to write and count, years of hard work were no longer needed, there was a "democratization" of the education system, which gradually made it possible to gradually make almost all free citizens of Greece literate. Thus, knowledge was "secularized", which became one of the reasons for the absence of the priestly estate in Greece and contributed to the increase in the spiritual potential of society as a whole.

The archaic era is associated with a phenomenon of exceptional importance for European culture - the emergence of philosophy. Philosophy is a fundamentally new approach to understanding the world, sharply different from that which prevailed in the Near East and in Greece in an earlier period. The transition from religious and mythological ideas about the world to a philosophical understanding of it meant a qualitative leap in the intellectual development of mankind. Formulation and formulation of problems, reliance on the human mind as a means of cognition, orientation towards the search for the causes of everything that happens in the world itself, and not outside it - this is what essentially distinguishes the philosophical approach to the world from religious and mythological views.

In modern scientific literature, there are two main views on the emergence of philosophy.

1. According to one, the birth of philosophy is a derivative of the development of science; the quantitative accumulation of positive knowledge resulted in a qualitative leap.
2. According to another explanation, early Greek philosophy in practically nothing, except for the way of expression, did not differ from the stage by stage of the earlier mythological system of knowledge of the world.
3. However, in recent years, a view has been expressed that seems to be the most correct: philosophy was born from the social experience of a citizen of an early polis.

The polis and the relations of citizens in it are the model by analogy with which the Greek philosophers saw the world. This conclusion is confirmed by the fact that the emergence of philosophy in its earliest form - natural philosophy (that is, philosophy, focused primarily on the knowledge of the most general laws of the world) - occurs in the most advanced Asia Minor policies. It is with them that the activities of the first philosophers are associated - Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes. Natural philosophical teachings about the primary elements made it possible to build a general picture of the world and explain it without resorting to the help of the gods. The emerging philosophy was spontaneously materialistic, the main thing in the work of its first representatives was the search for the material fundamental principles of all that exists.

Thales, the founder of Ionian natural philosophy, considered water, which is in continuous movement, to be such a fundamental principle. Transformations created it and create all things, which in turn turn into water again. Thales represented the earth as a flat disk floating on the surface of primary water. Thales was also considered the founder of mathematics, astronomy and a number of other specific sciences. Comparing records of successive solar eclipses, he predicted an eclipse of the sun in 597 (or 585) BC. and explained it by the fact that the moon has obscured the sun. According to Anaximander, the fundamental principle of everything is apeiron, indefinite, eternal and boundless matter, which is in constant motion. Anaximander gave the first formulation of the law of conservation of energy and created the first geometric model of the Universe.

The materialism and dialectics of the Ionian natural philosophers were opposed by the Pythagoreans - followers of the teachings of Pythagoras, who created a religious and mystical community in southern Italy. The Pythagoreans considered mathematics to be the basis of the foundations, believing that not quality, but quantity, not substance, but form, determine the essence of everything. Gradually, they began to identify things with numbers, depriving them of material content. The abstract number turned into an absolute was thought by them as the basis of the immaterial essence of the world.

Literature

At the beginning of the archaic era, the dominant genre of literature was the epic, inherited from the previous era. The fixation of Homer's poems, carried out in Athens under Pisistratus, marked the end of the "epic" period. The epic, as a reflection of the experience of the whole society in the new conditions, had to give way to other types of literature. In this era, filled with violent social conflicts, lyric genres are developing, reflecting the experiences of the individual. Citizenship distinguishes the poetry of Tierteus, who inspired the Spartans in their struggle for the possession of Messenia. In his elegies, Tirtaeus praised military valor and set forth the norms of behavior for soldiers. And in later times they were sung during the campaigns, they were also popular outside Sparta as a hymn to polis patriotism. The work of Theognis, an aristocratic poet who realized the death of the aristocratic system and suffered from it, is permeated with hatred of the lower classes and a thirst for revenge:

Firmly trample the empty people with their fifths, mercilessly
If you use a sharp stick, press down with a heavy yoke!

One of the first lyric poets, Archilochus, lived a life full of adversity and suffering. The son of an aristocrat and a slave, Archilochus, driven by need, went from his native Paros with the colonists to Thassos, fought with the Thracians, served as a mercenary, visited "beautiful and happy" Italy, but found happiness nowhere:

I have my bread kneaded in a sharp spear. And in a spear -
Wine from under Ismar. I drink, leaning on a spear.

In the work of another great lyricist - Alkea - the stormy political life of that time was reflected. Along with political motives in his poems there are also drinking ones, they sound the joy of life and the sadness of love, reflections on the inevitability of death and calls for friends to rejoice in life:

The rains are raging. Great cold
Carries from the sky. The rivers are all shackled ...
Let's drive the winter away. Blazing brightly
Let's expand the fire. Generously sweet to me
Pour some wine. Then under the cheek
Put a soft pillow for me.

"Sappho violet-haired, clean, with a gentle smile!" - the poet addresses his great contemporary Sappho.

At the center of Sappho's work was a woman suffering from love and tormented by the torments of jealousy, or a mother who tenderly loves her children. Sad motives prevail in Sappho's poetry, which gives her a kind of charm:

It seems to me that happiness is equal to God
The person who is so close, close
Sits in front of you, your sounding tender
Listens to the voice
And a lovely laugh. At the same time I have
The heart would stop beating at once.

Anacreon called his work the poetry of beauty, love and fun. He didn't think about politics, wars, civil strife:

I am not dear to the one who, while feasting, behind a full cup of speech
Only about litigation and about the regrettable war;
It is dear to me who, Muses and Cyprias, combining good gifts,
As a rule, he sets himself to be more fun at the feast.

Anacreon's poems, marked with the stamp of indisputable talent and enchanting with their form, had a huge impact on European, including Russian, poetry.

By the end of the archaic era, the birth of fictional prose, represented by the works of logographers, who collected local legends, genealogies of noble families, stories about the founding of policies, belongs to. At the same time, theatrical art appeared, the roots of which lie in the folk rituals of agricultural cults.

Ancient philosophy: idealistic schools and trends of the pre-Socratic period (Pythagoreans, Elean school).

Ancient philosophy: materialistic schools and trends of the pre-Socratic period: the Milesian school, atomists.

Ticket number 10. Food industry. General characteristics of the industry. Impact on the OS.

Archaic period (VIII - VI centuries BC)

The Archaic era is the time of the most interesting frisky ancient society, when the specific features of the civilization of the antique type were finally determined. Greece has already far outstripped all neighboring countries in its development, incl. and the states of Asia Minor, which used to be at the forefront of the cultural progress of mankind.

In the Archaic era, the foundations were laid: classical slavery; systems of money circulation and the market; the main form of political organization is the policy; the concept of the sovereignty of the people and a democratic form of government. At the same time, the main ethical norms and principles of morality, the aesthetic ideals of antiquity were developed. Finally, during this period, the main phenomena of ancient culture were born: philosophy and science, the main genres of literature, theater, order architecture, Olympic and other games.

Worldview foundations of culture.

In the archaic era, the main features of the ethics of ancient Greek society were formed. Its distinctive feature was the combination of the emerging sense of collectivism and the agonic (competitive) principle, which was associated with the formation of a special type of government in Greece - the polis, a civil community with a republican, unlike the countries of the Ancient East, a form of government. Polis is a city-state in which all citizens had certain rules and responsibilities. The polis ideology and its system of values ​​were also corresponding: the highest value was the community itself and its benefits, which ensure the welfare of every citizen. Polis morality was fundamentally collectivist, since the existence of an individual outside the polis was impossible. the polis system brought up a special perception of the world among the Greeks. He taught them to appreciate the real abilities and capabilities of a person - a citizen. It was they who were elevated to the highest artistic principle, to the aesthetic ideal of Ancient Greece. Democracy and humanism are the main ideas underlying ancient Greek culture and civilization.

A distinctive feature of the ancient Greeks was agon, i.e. the adversarial principle. Noble aristocrats in Homer's poems compete in strength, dexterity and perseverance, and victory in these competitions can bring only glory, not material benefits. Gradually, the idea of ​​victory in the competition as the highest value, glorifying the winner and bringing him honor and respect in society, is being established in Greek society. The formation of ideas about agon gave rise to various games of an aristocratic nature. The oldest and most important games were played for the first time in 776 BC. in honor of Olympian Zeus and since then repeated every four years. They lasted for five days, during which time a sacred peace was proclaimed throughout Greece. The winner's reward was only an olive branch. The athlete, who won the games three times ("olympionic"), received the right to install his statue in the sacred grove of the temple of Olympian Zeus. Athletes competed in running, fist wrestling, chariot racing. Later, the Pythian Games in Delphi (in honor of Apollo) were added to the Olympic Games - the winner was awarded a laurel wreath, Isthmian (in honor of the god Poseidon) on the Isthmus of Corinth, where the award was a wreath of pine branches, and, finally, the Nemean Games (in honor of Zeus). Participants in all the games were nude, so women were forbidden to attend the games on pain of death, but the beautiful naked body of an athlete became one of the most common motives of ancient Greek art.

Writing and Literature

One of the most important factors in the Greek culture of the 8th - 6th centuries. BC. a new writing system is rightfully considered. Through the mediation of the Phoenicians, the Greeks adopted the Semitic alphabet, refining it by adding several signs to denote vowels. Alphabetic writing was more convenient than the ancient syllabic writing of the Mycenaean era: it consisted of only 24 characters. The Greek alphabet had a number of variants, the most common of which was the Ionian alphabet, adopted, in particular, in Attica (Athens).

In the archaic period, a new trend was formed in Greek literature. The era of the Greeks passed away with Homer; now the attention of poets is attracted not by the heroic deeds of past centuries, but by today's life, feelings and experiences of an individual. This genre is called lyrics.

The emergence and development of lyric poetry is associated with the name of Archilochus from Fr. Paros (VI century BC). With unprecedented strength, he conveyed in his poems and impulses of passion, and offended pride, and the desire for revenge, and the willingness to endure the vicissitudes of fate. Instead of a hexameter, Archilochus introduced new dimensions into the literature - iambic and trocheus. Another Ionian, Anacreon from Fr. Theos (VI century BC), remained in the memory of mankind as a singer of friendly feasts and love, who in later centuries had many followers and imitators. It was Anacreon's lyrics that created the well-known image of cheerful, joyfully and serenely feasting Greeks. Archaic lyrics found their best representatives on about. Lesvos at the turn of the 7th-6th centuries BC. This poet Alkey and the poetess of the finest lyrical talent Sappho, known as the author of love poems and epithals (wedding songs). Ancient Sparta became the center for the development of choral lyrics, one of the most common forms of which was the praise - a song in honor of the god Dionysus.

Throughout the Greek world, the fame of the poet Pindar (6th-5th centuries BC), who glorified the highest virtue - arete - the innate quality of an aristocrat, meant valor, physical perfection, nobility and dignity, spread throughout the Greek world.

Hexameter is a poetic meter characteristic of Homeric poems and other epic works.

Ionia in Ancient Greece was the name of the western coast of Asia Minor, as well as some of the islands of the Aegean Sea.

Architecture

In the archaic era, the main types and forms of Greek art have already emerged, which will then develop in the classical period. All the achievements of Greek architecture of that time, both constructive and decorative, are associated with the construction of temples. In the VII century. BC. a system of orders appeared, i.e. a special ratio of load-bearing and load-bearing parts of a building in a girder-post structure. The artistic features of the two main architectural orders were determined: Doric and Ionic.

The Doric order, widespread mainly in southern Greece, was distinguished by the ponderousness and massiveness of the columns, simple and strict capital, striving for monumentality, masculinity, and perfection of proportions. In the Ionic order, on the contrary, lightness, grace, whimsical lines were valued, the capital had a characteristic shape similar to the horns of a ram. A little later, in the 5th century. BC, the Corinthian order appears in Greece - magnificent, spectacular, with a complex capital, similar to a flower basket.

Typical examples of Doric buildings from the Archaic era were the temples of Apollo at Corinth and Poseidon at Paestum. We know more about the Ionic temples of this era from ancient literature: a significant part of them were destroyed. So, throughout the Greek world, the sanctuary of Artemis in the city of Ephesus in Asia Minor (one of the wonders of the world) was famous for the temple of Hera on about. Samos, Apollo in Didyma (Asia Minor). A feature of the archaic temple was its rich polychrome painting. Ancient Greece was the birthplace of marble structures, but by no means only sparkling with whiteness, as is sometimes thought. The masterpieces of antique architecture shone with all the colors of colors: red, blue, gold, green against the background of the shining sun and the radiant sky.

Sculpture

The sculpture of the archaic period was notable for imperfection, creating, as a rule, a generalized image. These are the so-called kuros ("youths"), also called the archaic Apollo. Several dozen of these statues have survived to our time. The most famous is the marble figure of Apollo of the Shadows. The conventional "archaic smile" characteristic of the sculpture of that time plays on his lips, his eyes are wide open, his hands are lowered and clenched into fists. The principle of image frontality is fully observed. Archaic female statues are represented by the so-called kora ("girls") in long flowing robes. The heads of the girls are decorated with curls, the statues themselves are full of grace and grace. By the end of the VI century. BC. Greek sculptors gradually learned to overcome

The name "Doric" is associated with the Dorians, the conquerors of the Archean cities. The Doric order was considered by the Greeks to be the embodiment of strength and courage.

The capital is the upper part of the column. The capital supported the horizontal part of the building - an entablature consisting of an architrave, a frieze and a cornice. Architrave was a smooth beam; on the frieze, as a rule, sculptural compositions were placed; the cornice formed a gable roof.

In the archaic period (VIII-VI centuries BC), changes in economic life led to the creation of a new economic system. Greece has overtaken all neighboring countries in its development. Agriculture intensified: the peasants switched to the cultivation of more profitable crops - grapes and olives. The main cells of agricultural production were small peasant farms and the larger estates of the clan nobility, cultivated by impoverished relatives. Lands were leased, and the aristocrats charged 1/2 of the harvest as a payment.

The craft was concentrated in the cities, its branches were clearly formed: metallurgy, metalworking, shipbuilding. Pottery production was of a mass serial nature. Trade has become the leading industry, the scale of which is evidenced by the finds of Greek ceramics all the way to Central and Western Europe. Money appeared (tradition attributes their invention to the Lydians). Purchase and sale transactions have spread to all types of material assets. Usury arose, and with it debt slavery. Slaves also came from the colonies. Nevertheless, the economic role of slaves was small, the bulk of the artisans were free people.

In the VIII - VI centuries. the Great Greek colonization took place. Its reasons were, firstly, the lack of land due to the increase in population and the concentration of land in the hands of the nobility; secondly, the need for new sources of raw materials, the search for sales markets for agricultural and handicraft products, the need for metal that was absent in Greece itself, the desire of the Greeks to control trade routes; thirdly, the political struggle, forcing the defeated to seek luck in the colonies.

There are three main directions of colonization. The first is western, the most powerful. Sicily and Italy were so densely populated by colonists that they came to be called Great Greece. The second - northeastern - on the Black Sea coast. Third - southern and southeastern, the weakest, since here the Greeks met powerful resistance from Phoenician merchants.

Colonization somewhat muted social conflicts, promoted the development of crafts and trade. She widely spread the centers of Hellenic culture, opened up space for human abilities, freeing the personality from the control of the clan.

In the VIII - VI centuries. the formation of ancient city-states - city-states with adjoining territory went on. The policy was based on the ancient form of ownership, which was a unity of state and private principles of property - Polis, as a collective of citizens, had the right of supreme ownership of land. At the same time, only the citizens of the policy could be the owners of the land. The main economic principle of the polis was the idea of ​​autarky (self-sufficiency), which served as the economic basis of freedom. A polis system of values ​​has also been developed: the idea of ​​the superiority of agricultural labor over all others, condemnation of the desire for profit, etc.

Two main types of policies can be distinguished: 1) agrarian, with an absolute predominance of agriculture, poor development of trade and crafts, commodity-money relations, a large proportion of the labor of dependent workers, as a rule, with an oligarchic structure (Sparta, the city of Thessaly, Boeotia); 2) trade and craft, with a large share of crafts and trade, commodity-money relations, the introduction of slave labor into production, a democratic structure (Athens, Corinth, Miletus, Syracuse, etc.). First of all, the polis system appeared in the southern part of Greece on the Peloponnese peninsula (Sparta is the most studied), later in Attica (Athens).

Athens economically was more developed, here tribal relations disintegrated faster. Drakont's laws (621 BC) formalized the right to private property. The most important of the reforms of Solon (594 BC) was the following: all debts made on the mortgage of the land were forgiven, the peasants restored the status of owners, the conversion of the Athenians into slavery for debts was prohibited, the loan interest was limited. The export of olive oil for profit was allowed, and the grain was prohibited. Crafts were encouraged. A land cap was introduced to limit the concentration of land ownership.

The reforms that undermined the political dominance of the nobility were of great importance: all Athenian citizens were divided into four categories in terms of land income. Now the size of private property determined the importance of a person. And the legislation of Cleisthenes (509 BC) completed the elimination of the clan system - all citizens, regardless of their property status, were endowed with equal rights.

Thus, in the VIII - VI centuries. BC. there was a decomposition of the clan system and new forms of socio-economic organization were established, although this process in different parts of Hellas proceeded in different ways. Scientists often combine the Homeric and Archaic periods in the development of the economy of Ancient Greece into a single one. If we analyze this period of time, then we can say the following. It covers two stages in the history of Ancient Greece: the so-called dark ages (XI-IX centuries BC) and the archaic period (VIII-VI centuries BC). The Dark Ages are often called the Homeric period, since along with archaeological data, the main source for the study of this time is the poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey" attributed to Homer. Usually XI-IX centuries. BC e. is considered an intermediate stage, at which, on the one hand, in comparison with Achaean Greece, the level of development decreases, but, on the other hand, with the beginning of the production of iron tools, prerequisites are created for the further flourishing of the Greek states. The Archaic period is characterized by two main processes that had a decisive influence on the development of Greek civilization: - Great colonization - the development by the Greeks of the coasts of the Mediterranean, Black, Azov seas; - registration of the policy as a special type of community. There are two main types of policies:

Agrarian - the absolute predominance of agriculture, poor development of crafts, trade, a large proportion of dependent workers, as a rule, with an oligarchic structure; - trade and craft - with a large share of trade and crafts, commodity-money relations, the introduction of slavery into the means of production, a democratic system.

In the XI-IX centuries. BC. in the Greek economy, the natural type of economy prevailed; handicrafts were not separated from agriculture. There was some improvement in the tools of labor, in particular, a plow with a metal opener appeared. Livestock also played an important role in agriculture, with livestock being considered one of the main types of wealth. In the craft of the XI-IX centuries. BC e. there was some differentiation, weaving, metallurgy, and ceramics were especially developed, but production was focused only on meeting the basic needs of people. In this regard, trade developed very slowly and was mainly of an exchange nature. In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. the economic situation in ancient Greece has changed significantly. During this period, the craft separated from agriculture, which remains the leading branch of the economy. The poor development of agricultural production at the previous stage, the inability to provide food for the growing population of the policies became one of the main reasons for Greek colonization. The most important function of the colonies located in the Black Sea basin was to supply the metropolises with bread. The main attention is paid to crops, the cultivation of which is more consistent with the natural conditions of Greece: grapes, olives, all kinds of vegetable and horticultural crops; as a result, agriculture is becoming more market-oriented.

Handicraft production is also acquiring a commodity character, moreover, Greek colonization played an important role in this, which contributed to the expansion of the raw material base and the development of trade. Many Greek city-states are becoming major handicraft centers. Greek trade in the era of the Great colonization is developing very actively. Constant ties are being established between the metropolises, which export mainly handicraft products, and the colonies that supply various types of raw materials and agricultural products. In the most developed Greek policies, maritime trade is becoming one of the most important sectors of the economy. The main distinguishing feature of the Greek polis was the participation of all members of the civil community in the government, and this feature largely determined the internal policy of the polis. In particular, in many Greek city-states there were laws that limited the acquisition and sale of land and aimed at protecting the land ownership of individual citizens. However, in most parts of Greece, the development of commodity production and a shortage of land led to the growth of large land tenure, increased social differentiation and aggravation of the conflict between the aristocracy and the people (demos). In many policies of the archaic era, socio-political conflicts often ended in the establishment of a regime of personal power. In most cases, tyrants sought to enlist the support of the demos, took care of improving its position, promoted the development of crafts and trade, and the improvement of cities. Economic development in the XI-VI centuries. BC e. This period of time covers two stages in the history of Ancient Greece: the so-called dark ages (XI-IX centuries BC) and the archaic period (VIII-VI centuries BC). The Dark Ages are often called the Homeric period, since along with archaeological data, the main source for the study of this time is the poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey" attributed to Homer. Usually XI - IX centuries. BC e. is considered an intermediate stage, at which, on the one hand, in comparison with Achaean Greece, the level of development decreases, but, on the other hand, with the beginning of the production of iron tools, prerequisites are created for the further flourishing of the Greek states. The Archaic period is characterized by two main processes that had a decisive influence on the development of Greek civilization: 1) Great colonization - the development by the Greeks of the coasts of the Mediterranean, Black, Azov seas, 2) Formation of the polis as a special type of community.

Sectoral structure of the economy In the XI - IX centuries. BC. in the Greek economy, the natural type of economy prevailed; handicrafts were not separated from agriculture. As before, the main agricultural crops were cereals (barley, wheat), grapes, olives. As before, irrigation systems were created, soil fertilization was applied. There was some improvement in the tools of labor, in particular, a plow with a metal (especially iron) opener appeared. Livestock also played an important role in agriculture, with livestock being considered one of the main types of wealth. In the craft of the XI - IX centuries. BC e. there was some differentiation, weaving, metallurgy, and ceramics were especially developed, but production, as in agriculture, was focused only on meeting the basic needs of people. In this regard, trade developed very slowly and was mainly of an exchange nature. In the VIII - VI centuries. BC e. the economic situation in ancient Greece has changed significantly. During this period, the craft separated from agriculture, which remains the leading branch of the economy. The poor development of agricultural production at the previous stage, the inability to provide food for the growing population of the policies became one of the main reasons for Greek colonization. The most important function of the colonies located in the Black Sea basin was to supply the metropolises with bread. In many Greek city-states they refuse to grow cereals, and focus on crops, the cultivation of which is more consistent with the natural conditions of Greece: grapes, olives, all kinds of vegetable and horticultural crops; as a result, agriculture is becoming more market-oriented. This is also facilitated by the wider distribution of iron tools. Handicraft production is also acquiring a commodity character, and, as in agriculture, Greek colonization played an important role in this, which contributed to the expansion of the raw material base and the development of trade. Many Greek city-states are becoming large handicraft centers, with entire quarters of artisans appearing in them. Greek trade in the era of the Great colonization is developing very actively. Constant ties are being established between the metropolises, which export mainly handicraft products, and the colonies supplying various types of raw materials (especially metal, timber) and agricultural products (especially grain). In addition, the colonies become intermediaries between Greece and the remote barbarian periphery. In the most developed Greek policies, maritime trade is becoming one of the most important sectors of the economy.

Land ownership. Organization of production In the period of the dark ages, the land was the property of the territorial community, the main production unit was oikos (from c. House) - the economy of the patriarchal family. Each family in the community was assigned a piece of land that was inherited; however, it is possible that land redistributions were carried out from time to time. Slavery in the 11th - 9th centuries BC e. still had a patriarchal character, the main producer of products was a free farmer. The archaic period brought about great changes in property relations. Polis (or antique) became the leading form of land ownership - only citizens had the right to own land on the territory of the policy; personally free people who were not citizens (meteki) did not have this right. Citizens could sell, mortgage, lease land. In the VIII - VI centuries. BC e. an important change in the organization of production also takes place - slavery of the classical type begins to form. This process was associated with the development of commodity production and a significant increase in the number of foreign slaves coming from the colonies. Cheap slave labor made it possible to obtain more income and was more actively used in the main branches of production.

Monetary relations

At the turn of the II - I millennium BC. e. due to the predominance of subsistence farming and the weak development of trade, there was no money as such, their role was played mainly by cattle. In the era of the Great colonization, metal ingots, bars are increasingly used as money, and, finally, around the turn of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. coin minting begins. By the VI century. BC e. in Greece, there were two main monetary systems - the Aeginian and Euboean. The basis of each system was talent - a weight unit which on Euboea was 26.2 kg, and on Aegina - 37 kg. From one talent, 6 thousand drachmas were minted - silver coins. The Aeginian standard was spread throughout most of Greece and the Aegean islands, the Euboean standard on the island of Euboea, in many western Greek colonies, as well as in the two largest cities - Corinth and Athens. In the archaic period, usury developed to the people with monetary circulation, and insolvent debtors, as a rule, were turned into slaves and could even be sold abroad.

The role of the state in economic life The main distinguishing feature of the Greek polis was the participation of all members of the civil community in the government, and this feature largely determined the internal policy of the polis. In particular, in many Greek city-states there were laws restricting the acquisition and sale of land, aimed at protecting the land ownership of individual citizens. However, despite this, in most regions of Greece, the development of commodity production and a shortage of land led to the growth of large land tenure, increased social differentiation and aggravation of the conflict between the aristocracy and the people (demos). In many policies of the archaic era, socio-political conflicts often ended in the establishment of tyranny - a regime of personal power. In most cases, tyrants sought to enlist the support of the demos, took care of improving its position, promoted the development of crafts and trade, and the improvement of cities. However, tyrants constantly needed money and siphoned it out of the population in various ways; in the end, tyranny was overthrown in most city-states.

Conclusions: The economy of the Homeric period was rather backward. Subsistence farming prevailed, livestock was considered the measure of wealth, society did not know money. However, important changes took place during that period. First, in the X-IX centuries. BC e. iron was widely introduced into the Greek economy. Secondly, the autonomous economy of a small patriarchal family has come to the fore. Slavery, on the other hand, is not widespread. The polis settlement became the political and economic center. The main population of the city was made up of cattle breeders and farmers. Thus, by the end of this period, Greece was a world of small poleis-communities, associations of peasants-farmers, with the absence of external relations, the top of society was not strongly distinguished. During the archaic period, Greece overtook all neighboring countries in its development. The main cells of agricultural production were small peasant farms and the larger estates of the clan nobility. The craft is concentrated in the cities. Main industries: metallurgy, metalworking, shipbuilding. Trade became the leading industry. Money appeared. Usury arose, and with it debt slavery. In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. the Great Greek colonization was carried out. The reasons for colonization are as follows: the lack of land, due to the increase in population and its concentration in the hands of the nobility, the need for new sources of raw materials, the search for markets for their products, the need for metal (there was very little of it in Greece itself), the desire of the Greeks to control all sea trade ways, political struggle. In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. the formation of ancient policies was in progress. The policies were based on the ancient form of ownership. Polis possessed the supreme ownership of land. The basic economic principle of the policy was the idea of ​​self-sufficiency.